Introduction to Minor Prophets

I.  What or who are the Minor Prophets?

A.   What are the Minor Prophets?

      1.   Short answer: the books which ‘no one remembers’ when trying to list all 39 books of   the   OT from memory!

      2.   Categories of books of the OT

a)   17 Historical books – Genesis through Esther.

b)   5 Poetical books – Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon.

c)   17 Prophetic books

(1) 5 Major prophets – Isaiah, Jeremiah, Lamentations, Daniel, Ezekiel.

(2) 12 Minor prophets

       3.   First designated as a “Minor Prophets” by the Latin church in the time of Augustine and

Jerome on account of their brevity as compared to the so-called Major Prophets.

Prior to then, the Hebrew Scriptures referred to them simply as “the twelve.”

[Freeman].

B.   Who are the Minor Prophets?

     1.   Lesser-known prophets from all walks of life.

a)   Joel is thought to have been a priest.

b)   Habakkuk appears to have been a Levite [Unger].

c)   Micah seems to have been a simple villager.

d)   Amos was a shepherd (Amos 7:15).

e)   Zephaniah was the great grandson of Hezekiah, the reforming king of Judah.

 f) Some are quite familiar (e.g., Jonah). Others are quite obscure (e.g., Obadiah).

g) Some had lengthy ministries and others—from what we know from their writings may have been quite short. For example, the book of Haggai spans a period of some 4 months.

C.   Why are they called “minor”?

     1.   Not 'minor' in any sense except for the size of their writings in relation to the writings of other more well-known prophets such as Isaiah or Daniel who are known as the 'major' prophets.

      2.   No less inspired: all prophecy is inspired by the Spirit, whether long or short. 

    3.   Not at all, “minor” when the significance of some of their prophecies are considered. This makes sense when you consider that inspiration is what makes the writings of the Bible significant—it matters little whether the result is a few paragraphs or many pages. All that is given through these men is inspired and worthy of our attention.

As Peter explains, “prophecy never came by the will of man, but holy men of God spoke [as they were] moved by the Holy Spirit” (Peter 1:21).

II.        Why Study the Minor Prophets?

 A 1.   It is impossible to make sense of the Bible and to understand much of what Jesus said and did without a reasonable grasp of the Old Testament.

      2.   In fact, one could go even further and state that the degree to which Christians misunderstand and misrepresent Christ is strongly correlated to their knowledge of the Old Testament.

      3.   These minor  prophets are an important part of the Old Testament and worthy of our attention.

B.   Part of God's Word

The most obvious answer is: the Minor Prophets are part of God’s Inspired Word.

1.      A portion of Scripture is given by God and preserved down through history.

     2.   As with all of Scripture, God assumes we understand the relevance of these books and are continually working to become more familiar with their contents (Hos. 6:6; Mat. 22:28-29; John 20:8-9).

C.   To Gain A More Solid Foundation Which Allows Us To Recognize When Scripture Is Being Twisted Or Sensationalized To Build Fear Or A Following.

       1.   Many Christians lack a solid foundation in the OT and therefore are “open season” for being led astray about how to interpret the NT, especially in prophetic passages.

       2.   One of the results is an undercurrent of fear regarding developments in history because there is no sense of prophetic development or understanding of the flow of the stream of events which God has revealed will eventually lead to Christ’s return.

     3.   Lacking the framework of the OT, it becomes next to impossible for the Christian who remains ignorant of the OT to evaluate larger themes which span both OT and NT—especially in relation to their future development.

       4.   Without the “big picture” view we are trapped reacting to isolated historical events never knowing really how they may or may not fit into significant historical developments related in Scripture.

D.  Because the Minor Prophets are Unfamiliar

       1.   Because these passages are less familiar, we are more likely to learn something we haven't heard or considered before.

     2.   Because of their fragmentary nature, the minor  prophets force us to develop a better understanding of Biblical history as we seek to make sense of the personalities, foreign geography and political developments which populate these books.

       3.   The progression of development in the minor prophets provides important jigsaw (saw) pieces in the puzzle of understanding the progression of Bible history involving Israel from the time of Solomon through the divided Kingdom, the subsequent fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria, and the Southern Kingdom of Babylon, and ultimately, the restoration of the remnant which returns from Babylon to rebuild Jerusalem prior to the time of the NT.

E.    To learn from past fulfillment.

         1.    George Santayana says, “Those who cannot learn from history are doomed to repeat it.”

       2.   There are some uncanny, unsettling, even hair-raising parallels between the situations and words found in the prophets and our own situation today. Although the India is not Israel, many of the same principles apply and we can only blame ourselves when we find ourselves in the same well-worn ditch as cultures and countries who went before and also for shaken God.

      3.   C. Hassell Bullock observes: “The deep satisfaction of studying the words of some of history’s most profound spokesmen is indescribable. But so is the deep anguish of the message they delivered to their ancient audience with its application in the modern world. Their call to righteousness, their summons to fasten social structures to the character of an ethical God, and their insistent proclamation that the Lord’s patience would not endure forever, even though in the end sin could not outdo His grace or undo His love—these were emphatic precepts that the prophets iterated and reiterated to their world, precepts that still have not lost their potent relevance. . . . The value of the Hebrew prophets has been assessed and weighted by three millennia of history, and thankfully they, being dead, yet speak.”

     4.   Unbiased – unlike the kingly and priestly lines, individual prophets were not in line for political advantage and sought no permanent institutional power.

F.   Characteristics of cultures in their death throw

       1.   Certainty of God's judgment on those who, though previously favored, have abandoned Him and now rest in their pride.

      2.   God's use of nations to chastise Israel, but also his opposition of those nations who gleefully participate.

G.  How God has acted in the past is an excellent measure of how He is likely to behave in the future.

       1.   We learn about the character of God.

       2.   We find solace and guidance for our own times of crisis.

       3. “The prophets spoke to Israel in times of crisis. In fact, historical and moral crisis, . . . Had there been no crisis, threw would have been little need for the prophets. When the list of literary prophets is posted, it will be noted that they are clustered around critical historical events or eras.”

III. Where do the Minor Prophets Fit into History?

A. When we read the Minor Prophets, in fact any prophetic passages, we’ll often find passages which mix both near-term and far-afield predictions.  This is one of a number of difficulties we face in grasping the application of such passages

      1.   In some instances, the passage strictly concerns the historical setting of the prophet.

      2.   In other instances, portions of a passage concern a far future setting—even future to our own day.

      3.   Most often, passages contain a mix of both elements.

      4.   Therefore, it behooves us to know as much as is practical concerning the historical setting within which the prophet gave his oracle if we are to make a reasonable judgment concerning the topics and events he has in view.

B.   The Minor Prophets span all the way from the 9th century to the 5th century B.C.

Their writings can be grouped into three broad ranges of dates:

     1.   Assyrian Period – concerns the period from shortly after the division of the kingdom following Solomon up to and shortly following the fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria in 722 B.C. Obadiah (845), Joel (835), Jonah (782), Hosea (760), Amos (760), Micah (735), and Nahum (650).

     2.   Neo-Babylonian Period – concerns the period from after the fall of the Northern Kingdom up to shortly following the fall of the Southern Kingdom to Babylonia in 586 B.C. Zephaniah (640), Habakkuk (609), Haggai (520).

    3.   Persian Period (decree of Cyrus in 538 BC brought return from exile) Zechariah (520), Malachi (433).

C.   This takes us to the close of the OT canon.

“Malachi was regarded by the Hebrews as the last genuine prophet in Israel. According to I Maccabees 4:46; 9:27; 14:41, there were no canonical prophets in the Hebrew nation during the intertestamental period. During this period, apocalyptic and religious literature flourished; however; none of it emerged as canonical.”  

D.  What Nations were the main concern of the Minor Prophets?

1.   Israel (Samaria, Ephraim, Northern Kingdom) = Hosea, Amos

2.   Judah (Southern Kingdom) = Joel, Micah, Zephaniah, Habakkuk, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi.

3.   Nineveh = Jonah, Nahum

4.   Edom = Obadiah

PROPHET HOSEA-I

1.1 Title and Writer

The prophet's name is the title of the book. The book claims to be "the word of the LORD" that "Hosea" received (1:1). Thus he appears to have been the writer.

1.2 Unity

Historically almost all Jewish and Christian scholars have regarded the whole book as the product of Hosea. Some  critics,  however,  believe  later  editors  (redactors)  added  the prophecies concerning Judah (e.g., 4:15; 5:5, 10, 12-14; 6:4, 11; et al.), since most of the book  contains  prophecies  against  Israel,  the  Northern  Kingdom. Yet there is no good reason to deny Hosea the Judean prophecies. All the other eighth-century B.C. prophets also spoke about Judah, including Amos, who ministered to the Northern Kingdom at this time.  Some  critics  say  the  salvation  passages  in  Hosea  (e.g.,  11:8-11;  14:2-9)  are  so different  from  the  judgment  passages  that  someone  else  must  have  written  them. However,  the  mixing  of  judgment  and  salvation  messages  is  very  common  in  all  the prophets.

1.3 Date

Hosea's  ministry  spanned  the  reigns  of  four  Judean  kings  (Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and Hezekiah; cf. Isa. 1:1) and one Israelite king (Jeroboam II; 1:1). King Uzziah (Azariah) of  Judah  began  reigning  in  792  B.C.,  and  King  Hezekiah  of  Judah  stopped  reigning  in 686 B.C., spanning a period of 107 years. Probably Hosea's ministry began near the end of  Jeroboam  II's  (793-753  B.C.)  and  Uzziah's  (792-740  B.C.)  reigns,  and  ended  in  the early years of Hezekiah's sole reign (715-686 B.C.). Hezekiah evidently reigned for 14 years  as  co-regent  with  his  father  Ahaz  (729-715  B.C.;  cf.  2  Kings  18:1). This would mean that the prophet's ministry lasted perhaps 45 years (ca. 760-715 B.C.). It also means that Hosea's ministry extended beyond the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., since Hezekiah began ruling in 715 B.C. Hosea did not date any of his prophecies. Other possible dates are between 760 and 753 to 715 B.C. (38 to 45 years),  760 to 720 B.C. (38 years),  760 to sometime during Hezekiah's reign (715-686 B.C., about 45 years,  over half a century, and about 60 or 65 years. There  were  six  other  kings  of  Israel  who  followed  Jeroboam  II  that  Hosea  did  not mention in 1:1 that ruled during the reigns of the four Judean kings he named. They were Zechariah  (753  B.C.),  Shallum  (752  B.C.),  Menahem  (752-742  B.C.),  Pekah  (752-732 B.C.), Pekahiah (742-740 B.C.), and Hoshea (732-723 B.C.). Hosea evidently prophesied during  the  reigns  of  more  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  than  any  other  prophet,  probably eleven.  It  seems  unusual  that  Hosea  would  mention  four  Judean  kings  and  only  one Israelite king, especially since he ministered primarily to the Northern Kingdom. He may have  done  this  because  the  six  Israelite  kings  named  above  were  less  significant  in Israel's history than the other kings Hosea did mention. Another possibility is that Hosea did this because he regarded the Judean kings as Israel's legitimate kings in contrast to those of the North. He may have mentioned Jeroboam II because he was the primary king of the Northern Kingdom during his ministry, or because he was the strongest king of that kingdom during that period.

1.4 Historical Background

Hosea began ministering near the end of an era of great material prosperity and military success for both Israel and Judah (cf. 2 Kings 14:25-28; 2 Chron. 26:2, 6-15). In the first half of the eighth-century B.C., Assyrian influence in the west had declined temporarily, allowing  both  Jeroboam  II  and  Uzziah  to  flourish.  However,  under  Tiglath-Pileser  III (745-727 B.C.), Assyria began to grow stronger and to expand westward again. In 734 B.C. the Northern Kingdom became a puppet nation within the Assyrian Empire (2 Kings 15:29). After Israel tried to revolt, Assyria defeated Samaria, the capital of the Northern Kingdom, in 722 B.C., and deported the people of Israel into captivity (2 Kings 17:1-6; 18:10-12).  Judah  also  became  a  vassal  state  in  the  Assyrian  Empire  during  Hosea's ministry (2 Kings 16:5-10).  Hosea's  prophecy  reflects  conditions  of  economic  prosperity,  religious  formalism  and apostasy,   and   political   stability   that   marked   Jeroboam   II's   reign.   The   historical background of the Book of Amos is almost identical.

1.5 Place of Composition

Besides the fact that Hosea ministered to the Northern Kingdom, his reference to the king of Samaria as "our king" (7:5) seems to make his residence in Israel certain. The book never states the location of any of his preaching, however.

1.6 Audience and Purpose

Hosea,   like   Amos,   addressed   the   Northern   Kingdom   of   Israel   primarily.   Their contemporaries,  who  were  Isaiah  and  Micah,  ministered  primarily  to  the  Southern Kingdom of Judah. Some scholars believe that Amos preceded Hosea slightly. But this seems impossible to prove conclusively since we have so little information about exactly when these prophets wrote. Hosea's purpose was to announce that because the nation had broken  Yahweh's  covenant  (the  Mosaic  Covenant),  judgment  was  coming  (cf.  Deut. 28:15-68).  His  purpose  was,  therefore,  similar  to  Jeremiah's  in  that  both  prophets announced and witnessed the downfall of their respective nations. One writer referred to Hosea as the Jeremiah of Israel. The people needed to repent and return to the Lord and His  covenant.  If  they  did,  they  might  avoid  His  judgment.  However,  the  prophet announced  that  the  nation  as  a  whole  would  not  repent,  though  individuals  could,  so judgment  was  coming.  Hosea  also  reaffirmed  God's  promise  to  bless  His  people  Israel eventually, in the distant future (cf. Deut. 30:1-10). "Understanding   the   message   of   the   book   of   Hosea   depends   upon understanding the Sinai covenant. The book contains a series of blessings and curses announced to Israel by God through Hosea. Each blessing or curse is based upon a corresponding type in the Mosaic law."

1.7 Theology

The  major  biblical  doctrines  that  Hosea  stressed  were  sin,  judgment,  salvation,  and  the loyal love of God. Regarding sin, the prophet stressed the idolatry of the Israelites, which he compared to spiritual adultery. Israel had turned from Yahweh to worship Baal, the Canaanite god of fertility.  The  Lord  told  Hosea  to  marry  a  woman  who  would  prove  to  be  unfaithful  to him, so he could appreciate and communicate how the Lord felt about His wife's (Israel's) unfaithfulness  to  Him.  Hosea  also  pointed  out  other  sins  that  the  Israelites  needed  to forsake:  violent  crimes  (4:2;  6:9;  12:1),  political  revolt  (7:3-7),  foreign  alliances  (7:11; 8:9), spiritual ingratitude (7:15), social injustice (12:7), and selfish arrogance (13:6). Hosea called for repentance, but he was not hopeful of a positive response because most of the people did not want to change. God's judgment would, therefore, descend in the form of infertility, military invasion, and exile. Hosea stressed the fact that God was just in sending judgment on the Israelites. He would do it by making their punishments match their crimes. The  prophet  assured  the  Israelites  that  God  would  not  abandon  them  completely.  After judgment  would  come  salvation.  Eventually  the  people  would  return  to  Yahweh,  as Hosea's  wayward  wife  would  return  to  him.  In  Hosea,  passages  on  salvation  follow sections  announcing  judgment,  though  there  are  more  predictions  of  punishment  than promises of deliverance. The outstanding revelation concerning God that this book contributes is the loyal love of Yahweh for His own. "In no prophet is the love of God more clearly demarcated and illustrated than in Hosea.""Nowhere  in  the  whole  range  of  God's  revelation  do  we  find  more beautiful words of love than in Hosea 2:14-16; 6:1-4; 11:1-4, 8, 9; 14:4-8." "Every page of the prophecy keeps declaring God's love for Israel." The great illustration of how committed God is to His people is how He instructed Hosea to relate to his unfaithful wife. The Lord will not forsake those with whom He has joined in covenant commitment, even if they become unfaithful to Him repeatedly. He will be patient with them and will eventually save them (cf. 11:1-4; 14). "The Lord's covenantal relationship with His people Israel is central to the messages of the eighth-century prophets Hosea, Amos, and Micah. Each of these prophets accused God's people of violating the obligations of the Mosaic Covenant  and  warned  that  judgment  was pending.  Despite painting such a bleak picture of the immediate future, these prophets also saw a bright light at the end of the dark tunnel of punishment and exile. Each  anticipated  a  time  when  the  Lord,  on  the  basis  of  His  eternal covenantal  promises  to  Abraham  and  David,  would  restore  Israel  to  a position of favor and blessing. In fact, the coming judgment would purify God's people and thus prepare the way for a glorious new era in Israel's history."

1.8 Themes

The  major  truths  of  the  book  are:  (1)  God  suffers  when  His  people  are unfaithful  to  Him;  (2)  God  cannot  condone  sin;  and  (3)  God  will  never cease to love His own and, consequently, He seeks to win back those who have forsaken Him. Wood identified  five  basic  themes  that  recur  throughout  the  book.  Israel continued  to break the covenant that God had made with her. The broken marriage covenant of Hosea and  Gomer  illustrated  Israel's  sin.  In  spite  of  Israel's  unfaithfulness,  God  remained faithful to her. The Israelites could expect severe punishment for breaking the covenant. And  yet  Israel  would  again  enjoy  gracious  benefits  from  God,  including  future restoration.

1.9 Genre and Literary Forms

Hosea consists of prophetic oracles, most of which are in poetic form.   Silva regarded Hosea  as  essentially  a  covenant  enforcement  document.  He  identified  the  following subgenres  or  literary  forms  in  Hosea:  the  prophetic  judgment  speech,  the  covenant lawsuit speech (or rib oracle), the oracle of salvation, the prophetic call or commission, the symbolic action, proverbs and wisdom sayings, calls to alarm or battle warnings, the woe  oracle,  rhetorical  questions,  a  penitential  song,  a  divine  lament,  an  admonition  or exhortation to repent, and a love song. "Hosea  was  a  master  literary  craftsman.  His  work  is  so  elevated  in  style that  it  is  often  difficult  to  distinguish  between  his  use  of  poetry  and prose." "The single most striking feature of the poetic/literary nature of the book is its use of metaphor and simile."

1.10 Text

Hosea  contains  the  highest  proportion  (not  number)  of  textual  problems  of  any  Old Testament book except possibly Job.

1.11 Message

The Book of Hosea is an unusually powerful book, because the prophet ministered out of his deep personal emotions. His intellectual appeals to the Israelites in his day, and to us in ours, arose out of great personal tragedy in his own life. We might say that he cried out as he bled.  Hosea  appreciated  the  pain  that  God  felt  over  His  people's  apostasy,  as  no other  prophet  did,  because  he  felt  the  intense  pain  of  his  wife's  unfaithfulness.  Hosea could  speak  of  the  deepest  things  in  the  economy  of  God  because  he  entered  into fellowship with God in God's sufferings (cf. Phil. 3:10). That is one reason this book is so appealing and so powerful. The permanent values of this book are its revelations of sin, judgment, and love. Hosea reveals what sin is at its worst. It also reveals the nature of judgment. Third, it reveals the unconquerable force of true love. With regard to sin, Hosea reveals the very nature of sin, what makes it so appalling, not just the various forms of sin. Hosea was able to penetrate to the very heart of sin. What made the sin of the Israelites so great was the fact that they had sinned against light and love. The more light (revelation from God) that people have, the greater is their responsibility (cf.  Amos;  Rom.  1—3).  What  made  the  Israelites'  sin  so  bad  was  that  they  were  the Chosen  People  of  God,  the  people  of  all  peoples  on  earth  who  enjoyed  the  most revelation of the gracious person and the loving plans of Yahweh for their blessing. They had  the  Law,  they  had  God's  presence  among  them,  and  they  had  God's  covenant promises  (cf.  Rom.  9).  Yet  they  rebelled  against  Him  and  chose  to  walk  in  darkness rather than light. Furthermore,  they  had  sinned  against  God's  love.  They  had  experienced  Yahweh's election, His provisions, His protection, and more of His blessings than any other people on the earth, but they had walked away from Him and spent His gifts to them to satisfy their lewd desires. They had not only committed spiritual adultery, but they had become spiritual prostitutes. They had sinned against His love as well as against His light. In one respect, all sins are equally bad in that they are all offenses against God. But in another  sense,  some  sins  are  worse  than  others,  because  people  who  have  experienced much of God's light and love have greater responsibility to respond to that light and love, than  people  who  have  fewer  of  these  blessings.  In  Romans  2,  Paul  explained  that  God will judge people according to the light that they had (cf. James 3:1). The Israelites had much light, and they had experienced much love. This made their sin especially heinous. Hosea  declared  that  the  human  marriage  relationship  symbolized  the  relationship  that existed  between  Yahweh  and  His  people.  Israel  had  become  unfaithful  to  God.  God taught Hosea the seriousness of this unfaithfulness and how He felt about it through the prophet's own marriage relationship. Hosea experienced the tragedy and heartbreak of an unfaithful  wife,  not  just  an  adulteress,  which  is  bad  enough,  but  an  adulteress  turned prostitute—which enabled him to enter into the fellowship of God's sufferings over the behavior of His "wife," Israel. Hosea's heart was broken, and he felt the most unutterablesorrow that a man can feel, when he feels his wife abandon him. He learned how God felt, and he denounced kings, priests, and people out of that broken heart that mirrored the broken  heart  of  God.  Hosea,  then,  revealed  the  deepest  nature  of  sin,  namely: infidelity to the elective grace of God. The worst thing in the realm of sin is apathy to the love of God. The opposite of love is not hate but apathy.

PROPHET JOEL-II

2.1 Title and Writer

The title of this book is the name of its writer, as is probably true of all the prophetical books of the Old Testament. We  know  little  about  Joel,  whose  name  means  "Yahweh  is  God."  He  was  the  son  of Pethuel,  who  does  not  appear  to  have  been  an  especially  famous  person.  Eleven  other individuals in the Old Testament bore the name Joel (1 Sam. 8:2; 1 Chron. 4:35; 5:4; 7:3; 11:38; 15:7; 26:22; 27:20; 2 Chron. 29:12; Ezra 10:43; Neh. 11:9).

2.2 Unity

All the extant Hebrew manuscripts and the ancient versions of Joel attest to the unity of the book. Critics who deny its unity and argue for two different writers do so on the basis of  supposed  literary  and  conceptual  differences,  usually  between  the  first  two  chapters and the third. Specifically, they assign the historical passages to Joel and the apocalyptic ones to another writer.  However,  there  is  a  consistent  theme  that  ties  the  whole  book together,  which  is  one  reason  most  conservative  interpreters  believe  that  Joel  wrote  all three chapters.

2.3 Date

The date of Joel is its largest introductory problem.  There are four most likely possibilities. 

First, some scholars advocate  an early pre-exilic date during  the  reign  of  King  Jehoshaphat  (872-848  B.C.),  or  possibly  his  grandson,  King Joash (835-796 B.C.). Arguments in favor of this period include the position of Joel in the Hebrew canon; it appears among other prophetic writings of this period. However, the order of the pre-exilic Minor Prophets is not strictly chronological, in both the Hebrew and the English versions.  Also,  the  enemies  of  Israel  that  Joel  named  (Tyre,  Sidon, Philistia [cf. 2 Chron. 21:16-17], Egypt [cf. 1 Kings 14:25-26], and Edom [cf. 2 Kings 8:20-22]; 3:2-7, 19) were enemies of Israel during this time.  

Second, some authorities believe a mid-pre-exilic date of composition, probably during the  reign  of  Joash's  grandson,  King  Uzziah  (792-740  B.C.),  fits  the  evidence  best. Supporters of this view also claim the first two arguments cited in favor of the early pre-exilic view  above.  They  argue,  in  addition,  that  the  absence  of  references  to  Assyria, Babylonia, and Persia make a later date, when these nations were the major ancient Near Eastern superpowers, unlikely. Joel's reference to Greece in 3:6 may fit this period since the Ionian Greeks were at this time expanding their commercial influence in Asia Minor. Joel's  reference  to  the  Sabeans  in  3:8  is  appropriate  for  this  period  as  well.

Third, some interpreters opt for a late pre-exilic date.  Statements in Joel could  fit this period, and some of his statements are similar to those of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and may reflect conditions before the destruction of Jerusalem, perhaps between 597 and 587 B.C. If  true,  Joel  would  have  been  a  contemporary  of  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk,  and  Zephaniah. Yet  Joel  2:18-19  seems  to  imply  that  God  had  been  merciful  to  Joel's  generation, suggesting that the people had repented, but there is no record of this happening during this  period.  A  variation  of  this  view  is  that  Joel  wrote  either  just  before  the  Assyrian invasion  of  701  B.C.  or  just  before  one  of  the  Babylonian  invasions:  the  598  B.C. invasion, or the 588 B.C. invasion.

The fourth view is that Joel wrote at a postexilic date, perhaps 515-500 B.C., or even as late as sometime in the 400s B.C. Interpreters who see Joel 3:1-2 and 17 as references to the destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian  Captivity  take  the  references  to  the temple in 1:9, 13 and 2:17 as applying to the second temple (completed in 515 B.C.). Yet all these texts could apply to earlier periods. Generally, scholars who view apocalyptic writing as a late development in Judaism tend to date Joel quite late.  

2.4 Place of Composition and Audience

Joel's frequent references to Judah and Jerusalem suggest that he lived and ministered in the Southern Kingdom (cf. 1:9, 13-14, 16; 2:1, 14-15, 17, 23, 32; 3:1-8, 12, 14, 17-21).

2.5 Purpose

Joel  wrote  to  warn  his  audience  about  a  coming  day  in  which  God  would  judge  His people.  He  compared  this  devastating  judgment  to  a  terrible  locust  invasion  that  had fairly recently swept through the land. What he said about this coming judgment has only seen partial fulfillment; some of it still lies in the eschatological future. God  would  send  blessing  as  well  as  judgment,  however,  and  this  too  has  only  come partially on the Israelites so far. The prophet warned his hearers that unless they repented of  their  empty  formalism  in  worship  and  turned  back  to  Yahweh  wholeheartedly, devastating  judgment  would  overtake  them. If they repented, God  would  pardon  them and restore His blessings to them abundantly.

2.6 Theology

The  sovereignty  of  God  and  the  inevitability  of  divine  punishment  for  covenant unfaithfulness are dominant themes in Joel."Joel's depiction of the absolute authority of Yahweh over all the peoples of the earth is among the strongest in the Old Testament.” So  is  Yahweh's  compassionate  forgiveness  in  response  to  repentance.  "The  day  of  the Lord,"  for  both  judgment  and  blessing  aspects,  is  also  a  prominent  theme. Thus  the administration  of  God  is  a  strong  motif:  how  God  exercises  His  sovereignty  when  His people  sin.  Another  important  theological  contribution  of  Joel  is  his  prediction  of  God pouring out the Holy Spirit in the last days (2:28-32).

2.7 Style and Text

Joel's literary style is rich, vivid, classical, clear, and beautiful. The Hebrew text of Joel presents no serious interpretive problems and is well preserved.

2.8 Message

The Book of Joel contains a threefold vision. The first part of Joel's vision concerned a locust plague that had recently swept over the Promised Land. Joel prophesied about this plague because  of  the  desolation  that  it  had  produced. The second part  of  his  vision concerned a coming invasion from a foreign army in the fairly near future. He used the recent locust plague to illustrate the devastating effect of the coming military invasion. The third part of his vision concerned another coming invasion, in the far distant future, that would also be like the recent locust invasion, only worse. Joel described each of these devastations as "the day of the Lord." The term itself refers to a time when God had been or would be controlling events for Israel in an unusually direct way. It was "His day" in the sense that, at those times, Yahweh was and would be especially prominent  in  what  happened.  Thus  this  term  referred  to  a  past  "day,"  a  near future  "day,"  and  a  far  distant  "day,"  from  the  prophet's  perspective. "The  day  of  the Lord" was the burden of his prophecy. God revealed His plans simply at first. God does not overload us with too much information all at once.

PROPHET AMOS-III

3.1 Title and Writer

The title of the book comes from its writer. The prophet's name means "burden-bearer" or "load-carrier." Amos was  a  "sheepherder" (Heb. noqed;  cf. 2  Kings  3:4)  or  sheep breeder, and he described himself as a  herdsman  (Heb.  boqer;  7:14). He was  more  than  a  shepherd  (Heb. ro'ah).  He   evidently   owned   or managed  large  herds  of  sheep,  and or goats, and was probably in charge of  shepherds.  Amos  also  described himself  as  a  grower  of  sycamore figs  (7:14). Sycamore fig trees  are not true fig trees but a variety of the mulberry   family,   which   produces fig-like  fruit. Tekoa (Amos'  home town) stood 10 miles south  of  Jerusalem  in  Judah.

Thus, Amos seems to have been a prosperous and influential Judahite, but there is no indication that he was a priest, or had any connection with the royal family or the ruling classes in his land. Amos' natural surroundings had a profound effect on him and his writing (cf.1:2; 2:9; 3:4-5; 5:19-20, 24; 6:12; 7:1-6; 8:1; 9:3-15).

3.2 Date

Amos  ministered  during  the  reigns  of  King  Jeroboam  II  of  Israel  (793-753  B.C.)  and King  Uzziah  (Azariah)  of  Judah  (792-740  B.C.),  specifically  two  years  before  "the earthquake"  (1:1).  Zechariah  also  referred  to  a  notable  earthquake  during  the  reign  of Uzziah  (Zech.  14:5).  Josephus  wrote  that  an  earthquake  occurred  when  Uzziah  entered the temple and was struck with leprosy (cf. 2 Chron. 26:16-20). 1  However, this may be simply  Jewish  tradition.  Archaeological  excavations  at  Hazor  and  Samaria  point  to evidence of a violent earthquake in Israel about 760 B.C. 2  So perhaps Amos ministered about 760 B.C. This date may account for the omission of the name of King Jotham who ruled as coregent with Uzziah from 750-740 B.C. Thus Amos was a contemporary of the other eighth-century prophets: Jonah, Hosea, Isaiah, and Micah.

3.3 Place of Composition

Since  Amos  lived  in  the  Judean  town  of  Tekoa,  he  was  a  prophet  from  the  Southern Kingdom.  His  hometown  served  as  a  defensive  warning  outpost  for  the  protection  of Jerusalem from the south. Similarly, Amos' prophecies were a defensive warning for the protection of Israel from the south.

3.4 Audience and Purpose

Amos prophesied against the Northern Kingdom of Israel (1:1). Yahweh raised him up to announce judgment on Israel because of her covenant unfaithfulness and rebellion against His authority.  Amos  announced  the  destruction  of  the  Northern  Kingdom,  but  he  also predicted that the Lord would preserve a remnant that was repentant. He would restore this remnant to political prominence and covenant blessing, and through them, draw all nations  to  Himself. Amos  announced  a  warning  to  the  residents  of  the  Northern Kingdom, but he also held out hope. Amos emphasized God's righteousness; Hosea, his contemporary in the north, God's love. Amos' prophecies are more threatening; Hosea's are more tender. Amos' professional life is a subject of his prophecies; Hosea's home life is a subject of his.

3.5 Historical Background

These  were  times  of  political  stability,  material  prosperity,  and  geographical  expansion for both the Northern and the Southern Kingdoms (cf. 1:6; 6:2, 13; 2 Kings 14:23-29; 2 Chron. 26:1-15). Jeroboam II and Uzziah were two of the most competent and effective kings  that  their  respective  kingdoms  enjoyed.  They  brought  their  nations  to  heights  of success,  second  only  to  those  in  Solomon's  golden  age.  Archaeologists  have  found hundreds of ivory inlays in the excavations of Samaria, proving the Northern Kingdom's prosperity. The Northern  ingdom was at the height of its power during Jeroboam II's reign. Aram had not recovered from its defeat by Adad-Nirari III of Assyria in 802 B.C., and  Assyria  had  not  yet  developed  into  the  superpower  that  it  became  under  Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B.C.).

3.6 Unity

Almost  all  scholars  agree  that  the  Book  of  Amos  was  originally  a  single  book  that  the prophet Amos wrote. Comparison with the writings of the other eighth-century prophets, plus the consistently vivid and forthright style of Amos, make this conclusion virtually inescapable.

3.7 Theology

Amos' descriptions of God remind the reader of the descriptions of Him in the first few chapters of Genesis. Amos stressed the sovereignty of Yahweh over history. He controls the  movements  of  peoples  (9:7)  and  the  order  of  nature  (4:13;  5:8).  The  prophet  also affirmed the ability of people to submit to or reject the Lord's authority. He reminded his hearers  of  Yahweh's  election  of  Israel  (3:2),  but  repudiated  the  popular  idea  of  his  day that God would not punish His people. "Amos, more than any other prophet, urged the responsibility of elective privilege." "Whereas Hosea was crushed with a sense of the unfaithfulness of Israel to the love of God, Amos was outraged at the violence they had done to the justice and righteousness of God. The note he strikes in his prophecy is the    counterpart    and    corollary    to    the    message    uttered    by    [his contemporary,] Hosea." Like many of the other prophets, Amos spoke of the day of the Lord. He saw it as a time when God would judge sin, even in His own people (5:18-20). Another day would come, however,  when  David's  kingdom  would  be  restored  and  would  include  both  Jews  and Gentiles (9:13-15). Amos' emphases on man and sin emphasize idolatry and social injustice, frequent themes in the other writing prophets, but especially prominent in this book.

3.8 Structure and Style

Scholars have observed that Amos wrote in the covenant-lawsuit structure and style that was  common  in  the  ancient  Near  East  in  his  day  (the  rib  oracle). His  words  are covenant-lawsuit  addresses. The  Great  King  (God)  is  introduced  in  the  third  person (1:2), and then begins to speak in the first person (1:3). Amos' phraseology illustrates the covenant background against which it was written, namely, the Mosaic Covenant. One writer  called  the  genre  of  the  entire  book  a  covenant  enforcement  document. 15   Other stylistic  features  that  Amos  employed  prominently  include  repetition  (e.g.,  1:3,  4,  5), summary quotation (e.g., 4:1; 6:13; 8:5-6; 9:10), and irony (e.g., 4:1). Amos was probably an impressive and effective speaker, as well as a gifted writer, since his writing  style  is  rhetorical.  He  used  short,  uncomplicated  sentences. He  often  asked questions and provided explanations. He also knew the power of repetition. He illustrated his points well with figures of speech and lessons from nature. Perhaps after he finished preaching in Bethel, he returned to Tekoa and wrote down his prophecies on a scroll.

3.9 Message

The Book of Amos is distinctive from the other prophetic books of the Old Testament in two respects. First, the prophet Amos was not a prophet in the same sense that the other prophets were prophets. He was not recognized as a prophet among his contemporaries. He had not been to one of the schools of the prophets. He had not been discipled by another recognized prophet. He was what we would call today a "layman," and an untrained layman at that. The  other  prophets  claimed  to  be  prophets,  but  Amos  claimed  to  be  a  farmer  and shepherd. God burdens some Christians to leave "secular" employment to announce His messages. They can identify with Amos. This was his calling, too. Second, the  prophecy  of  Amos  is  not  a  prophecy  in  the  same  sense  that  the  other prophetic  books  were  prophecies.  Amos'  perspective  was  wider  than  most  of  the  other prophets. An evidence of this is that he did not refer to God as the God of Israel, as the other prophets did. Instead, he thought of Him, and referred to Him, as the God of the whole  earth.  Moreover,  Amos  grouped  Judah  and  Israel  with  Damascus,  Gaza,  Tyre, Edom, Ammon, and Moab. He saw Yahweh as sovereign over all these city-states and nations, not just over Judah and Israel primarily. Whereas Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel all recorded messages of judgment against foreign nations, they focused on Judah and Israel particularly in their books. Amos focused on Israel particularly, but he viewed Judah and Israel as two among many nations that God would judge for the same sins.

PROPHET OBADIAH-IV

4.1 Title and Writer

As  is  true  of  all  the  other  prophetical  books  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  title  of  this  one evidently comes from the name of its writer. "Obadiah" means "servant of Yahweh" or "worshipper of Yahweh," depending on the form (vocalization) of his name in Hebrew, which  is  debated.  There  are  13  men  who  bear  this  name  in  the  Old  Testament,  from Davidic to postexilic times, assuming the writer was not one of the other 12. It appears that  he  was  not,  since  attempts  to  identify  him  with  one  of  the  others  have  proved unsatisfying. A few scholars have favored the view that this "Obadiah" was not the name of  an  individual  but  a  symbolic  title  of  the  writer  who  was  an  unidentified  servant  or worshipper of the Lord. This seems unlikely since the other prophetical books bear the proper names of their writers. Some scholars believe that Malachi ("my servant") is also a title rather than a proper name. Exactly who Obadiah was, remains a mystery. Keil believed that the Obadiah who served King  Ahab  and  who  encountered  Elijah  (1  Kings  18:3-16)  was  the  writer. Usually something  about  the  writer  accompanies  his  name  at  the  beginning  of  each  prophetical book,  generally  his  father's  name,  some  of  his  ancestors,  and  or  his  hometown.  This descriptive  information  is  absent  in  only  two  of  the  prophetical  books:  Obadiah  and Malachi.

4.2 Unity

Some scholars have contended that this small book, the shortest one in the Old Testament but not in the Bible, is a collection of prophecies that two or more unidentified prophets uttered.  There  are  two  reasons  for  this  view.  First,  since  the  identity  of  Obadiah  is obscure, some students of the book have concluded that "Obadiah" is a title that describes prophets  in  general,  as  servants  of  the  Lord,  rather  than  the  name  of  one  specific individual. Second, the content of the book may consist of from two to five oracles. Form critics have identified three types of oracles: oracles of judgment, oracles of repentance, and oracles of salvation. This has led some scholars to posit two or more prophecies and two or more prophets. However, since "Obadiah" was a common Hebrew name, and since the other prophetical books  bear  the  names  of  their  writers,  it  is  more  natural  to  assume  that  one  prophet named Obadiah wrote the whole book. Furthermore, since many other writing prophets recorded several oracles, it is reasonable to assume that one prophet named Obadiah did the same in this book if, indeed, it consists of more than one oracle. The whole brief book fits together nicely as a single composition.

4.3 Date

Since we do not know who the writer was, other than that his name appears to have been Obadiah, it is very difficult to date this book and to determine where it came from. "This shortest book in the Old Testament, consisting of only twenty-one verses,  bears  the  distinction  of  being  the  most  difficult  of  all  the prophecies to date." There  are  three  clues  concerning  when  the  prophet  wrote  it:  references  to  historical events  in  the  book,  the  book's  place  in  the  Hebrew  canon,  and  possible  quotations  or allusions to the writings of other Old Testament prophets. First,  Obadiah  referred  to  a  time  in  the  apparently  recent  past  when  the  Edomites  had gloated over a successful invasion of Jerusalem (vv. 10-14, 16). There are at least seven occasions  during  the  ministry  of  the  writing  prophets  when  we  know  Jerusalem experienced invasion and suffered a defeat. One of these is probably the event he referred to.

The second clue to the date of Obadiah's prophecy is the place of the book in the Hebrew canon. The Minor Prophets are called "minor," of course, because they are shorter than the  Major  Prophets.  The  Jews  put  all  12  of  the  Minor  Prophets  on  one  scroll,  for convenience sake and to keep them from getting lost. The order in which they appear in the Hebrew Bible is basically chronological, and this order continued in later translations of the Old Testament, including English translations. This would lead us to conclude that the ancient Jews regarded Obadiah as one of the earlier prophetical books.

The third clue concerning the date of Obadiah is evidence that one prophet depended on another.  There  are  similarities  between Obadiah  1-6  and  Jeremiah  49:9  and  14-17,  and between  Obadiah  10-18  and  Joel  1:15;  2:1,  32;  3:3-4,  17,  and  19. 11   There  are  also similarities  between  Obadiah  9,  10,  14,  18,  and  19  and  Amos  1:2,  6,  11-12,  and  9:13. However, in all these instances it is really impossible to determine if Obadiah referred to the other prophets, if they referred to Obadiah, if they all depended on another common source, or if the Holy Spirit simply led each prophet independently to express himself in similar terms.

4.4 Place of Composition and Audience

Since  Obadiah's  concern  was  the  Edomites'  rejoicing  over  an  invasion  of  Jerusalem,  it seems most probable that the prophet lived in the Southern Kingdom of Judah. Most of the scholars do agree on this. Since Obadiah's concern was Jerusalem, and since it seems likely that he lived in Judah, the original people who received his prophecy were probably the residents of Judah.

4.5 Historical Background

The Edomites were the descendants of Esau, who displaced the Horites (a.k.a. Hurrians) that  we  read  about  in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  The  Horites  and  the  Amorites  were  the original inhabitants of Palestine. During the Monarchy, David captured Edom, stationed a garrison there, and made Edom a vassal state (1 Chron. 18:12-13). Solomon later developed the port city of Ezion-geber (Elath;  1  Kings  9:26-28).  Hadad,  a  member  of  the  Edomite  royal  family,  opposed Solomon and set up a government in exile in Egypt (1 Kings 11:14-17). But Judah still governed Edom during the reign of King Jehoshaphat, who posted a governor in Edom (1 Kings 22:47-48). Edom gained her freedom from Judah, in 845 B.C., by rebelling against Jehoram,  the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Kings  8:20-22;  2  Chron.  21:8-10,  16-17).  King Amaziah of Judah partially recaptured Edom between 790 and 770 B.C. (2 Kings 14:7). King  Uzziah  of  Judah  recaptured  the  port  of  Ezion-geber  (2  Kings  14:21-22).  Aram (Syria)  later  took  Ezion-geber  from  Judah  (2  Kings  16:5-6).  After  that  the  Edomites revolted  and  attacked  Judah  a  second  time,  during  the  reign  of  King  Ahaz  of  Judah  (2 Chron.  28:17).  Finally,  when  King  Nebuchadnezzar  attacked  Judah,  the  Edomites assisted the Babylonians (Ps. 137:7; Jer. 49:7-22; Ezek. 25:12-14; 35:1-15). After the Babylonian invasion of Judah—and of their former ally against Judah, Edom—the Nabatean Arabs took over the capital city of Sela (Gr. Petra) and forced the remaining Edomites into southern Judah, where they settled. The Greeks named this area "Idumea," and its inhabitants Idumeans, following Alexander the Great's conquest of Palestine in the 4th  century  B.C.  The  Romans  replaced  the  Greeks  as  the  dominant  power  in  Palestine and permitted the Idumeans to enjoy some sovereignty. King Herod the Great, who was in charge of Palestine when Jesus was born, was an Idumean. The Idumeans later joined the  Jews  in  revolting  against  the  Romans  in  68-70  A.D.  Their  defeat  resulted  in  their scattering,  and  they  ceased  to  exist  as  a  people.  This  was  the  fulfillment  of  Obadiah's prophecy of judgment on their nation. Edom's history of antagonism  against Israel was long and consistent.

4.6 Purpose and Uniqueness

Obadiah wrote to announce coming divine judgment on Edom, and to give the Israelites hope by reminding them of the future that God promised them.  

4.7 Message

The very fact that this book consists of only one chapter should alert us to its importance. If it were unimportant, God would not have preserved it, and it would have disappeared long  ago.  Its  shortness  also  simplifies  our  task  of  discovering  its  message.  Like  all  the Bible books, this one has a message that is vital for us today, as well as for its original readers centuries ago. Obadiah  reveals  the  culmination  of  sibling  rivalry  and  the  national  antagonism  that developed between the descendants of Jacob and Esau: the Israelites and the Edomites. The conflict between these two boys and their respective descendants began before they were  born.  The  infants  struggled  in  the  womb  of  their  mother  Rebekah  (Gen.  25:22). Moreover, God loved Jacob, but He hated Esau (Mal. 1:2-3). The terms "love" and "hate" reflect  God's  elective  purpose  for  both  sons.  When  God  said  He  loved  Jacob  but  hated Esau,  He  meant  that  He  chose to  bless  Jacob  in  a  way  that  He  did  not  choose  to  bless Esau. The statement expresses polar opposites to make the difference clearer. Often when God wanted to say He chose to bless someone, in the Old Testament, He said He lovedthat person. This was covenant terminology in the ancient Near East, and people in that part of the world at that time understood that loving and hating had these connotations. The line of Jacob finally produced Jesus Christ. The line of Esau produced the Herods. Both Jesus and the Herods were "kings of the Jews." Jesus never spoke to Herod Antipas, even  when  questioned  by  him,  though  He  did  send  him  a  message  once  (Luke  13:32), illustrating  the  antagonism  that  existed  between  them.  This  antagonism  consistently marked the relationship between the Edomites and the Israelites. Esau is in the foreground of the Book of Obadiah, and Jacob is in the background. Jacob and his descendants passed through suffering and chastisement, and their ultimate destiny is  restoration  and  usefulness.  Esau  and  his  descendants  were  proud,  rebellious,  defiant, and  their  end  was  ultimate  destruction.  Jacob  was  the  more  unattractive  personality originally, and Esau was more appealing. Yet God overruled what was natural, in order to produce  what  He  wanted  in  the  lives  of  both  of  these  men,  in  view  of  their  choices. Divine sovereignty and human choices are so intertwined that it is impossible for us to separate them. The Scriptures consistently present both as real and significant factors in the course of human affairs. Obadiah tells the story of the destruction of Edom, the nation that descended from Esau. It also shows that God will destroy all that Edom stood for and represented. "Edom" is "Esau projected into national proportions." In Obadiah, we see the essential evil of Esau, the supreme manifestation of that evil, and the inevitable result of that evil. But we also see a ray of hope even for "the mount of Esau."

PROPHET JONAH-V

5.1 Background

Jonah is the fifth of the Minor Prophets in our English Bibles. The Minor Prophets are called  the  Book  of  the  Twelve  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Jonah  is  unique  among  the  Latter Prophets  (in  Hebrew:  Isaiah  through  Malachi)  in  that  it  is  almost  completely  narrative, similar to the histories of Elijah and Elisha (1 Kings 17—19; 2 Kings 2:1—13:21). As with these two predecessors, Elijah and Elisha, Jonah also ministered in and to Israel, as well as in Phoenicia and Aram. The exceptional section of this book, of course, is Jonah's psalm  in  2:2-9  (cf.  Hab.  3).  Jonah  is  the  only  Old  Testament  prophet  on  record  whom God  sent  to  a  heathen  nation  with  a  message  of  repentance.  Nahum's  later  ministry  to Nineveh consisted of announcing certain overthrow, although, had the Ninevites repented again,  God  might  have  relented.  Jonah  was  Israel's  foreign  missionary,  whereas  Hosea was Israel's home missionary. Both of these prophets revealed important characteristics about God: Hosea, God's loyal love to Israel, and Jonah, His compassion for all people, specifically Gentiles. Jonah's  hometown  was  Gath-hepher in  Galilee  (2  Kings  14:25;  cf.  Josh. 19:13).  It  stood  north  of  Nazareth  in the  tribal  territory  of  Zebulun.  Jonah prophesied  in  the  Northern  Kingdom during   the   reign   of   Israel's   King Jeroboam  II  (793-753  B.C.;  2  Kings 14:23-25).     Second     Kings     14:25 records that Jonah  prophesied  that Jeroboam  II  would  restore  Israel  to her former boundaries, which the king did. It  is  very  probable  that  God  sent Jonah to Nineveh, at this time a very significant city of the great Assyrian Empire, during the years when that nation was relatively weak.

Nineveh stood on the eastern bank of the Tigris River. It had walls 100 feet high and 50 feet thick, and the main one, punctuated by 15 gates, was over seven and one-half miles long. The total population was probably about 600,000—including the people who lived in  the  suburbs  outside  the  city  walls  (cf.  4:11).  The  residents  were  idolaters  and worshipped  Asur  and  Ishtar,  the  chief  male  and  female  deities,  as  did  almost  all  the Assyrians. Assyria was a threat to Israel's security (cf. Hos. 11:5; Amos 5:27). This is one reason Jonah refused to go to Nineveh. He feared the people might repent and that God would refrain from punishing Israel's enemy (4:2).

5.2 Date and Writer

Many critical scholars date this prophecy in the postexilic period during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah. They base their opinion on linguistic features of the book and legendary descriptions, specifically: the size, population, importance, and king of Nineveh, plus late customs and audience. Critics also point to the differences in style between Jonah and Hosea,   another   northern   prophet.   Many   conservative   scholars   believe   that   these arguments do not outweigh the evidence for a pre-exilic date that many features of the book and the traditional Jewish commentaries present. If the book records events that really happened, the record of them must have come from Jonah himself. However, the book nowhere claims that Jonah was its writer. It seems to argue  against  this  possibility  by  relating  the  story in the  third  person  rather  than  in  the first. Therefore, some unidentified writer appears to have put the book in its final form. However, Jonah could have described himself in the third person. Daniel did this in the  Book  of  Daniel,  which  most  conservatives  believe  Daniel  wrote.  The  compilers  of  the Old Testament canon probably placed this book among the Minor Prophets because they believed  that  Jonah  wrote  it. The  title,  however,  honors  the  chief  character  in  the narrative as much as its traditional writer. The  events  recorded  in  the  book  probably  covered  only  a  few  months  or  years  at  the most. Jonah lived during Jeroboam II's reign over the Northern Kingdom of Israel (793-753 B.C.). Probably a date of composition somewhere in the neighborhood of 780 B.C. would not be far from the exact date.

5.3 Historicity

Since the rise of critical scholarship in the nineteenth century, many writers and teachers now believe that the events recorded in this book were not historical. They interpret this book as an allegory or as a parable. The  allegorical  interpretation  views  the  book  as  "a  complete  allegory  in  which  each feature represents an element in the historical and religious experience of the Israelites." This  interpretation  may  have  arisen  because  "Jonah"  means  "dove,"  and  the  Jews  had long  regarded  the  dove  as  a  symbol  of  their  nation  (cf.  Ps.  74:19;  Hos.  11:11).  Jonah indisputably  brought  peace  to  violent  Nineveh  as  a  dove.  Those  who  adoptthis interpretation  see  the  book  as  teaching  Israel's  mission  and  failure  in  being  God's missionary  agent  to  the  Gentiles.  Jonah's  flight  to  Tarshish  represents  Israel's  failure before the Exile, and the great fish symbolizes Babylon. The disgorging of Jonah stands for Israel's second chance following her restoration to the land. The  parabolic  interpretation  also  regards  the  book  as  not  historical. 12   However,  its advocates view it as simply a moral story designed to teach a spiritual lesson. Essentially, the lesson is that God's people should not be narrow and introverted, but outreaching and missionary in their love and concern for those outside their number who are facing God's judgment.  The  difference  in  these  two  interpretations  is  the  amount  of  detail  that  its advocates press. The parabolic interpretation usually argues for one primary lesson in the story, whereas the allegorical interpretation finds meaning in its many details too.

Jewish and Christian interpreters believed that the Book of Jonah was historical until the rise of critical scholarship. Jesus Christ referred to Jonah as a historical person and to his  experience  as  real  (Matt.  12:38-42;  16:4;  Luke  11:29-32).  Jonah  is  the  only  Old Testament character with whom Jesus Christ compared Himself directly. Jesus did refer to  other  prophets,  however,  namely:  Elijah,  Elisha,  and  Isaiah—besides  quoting  and alluding to many others. "If the three days' confinement of Jonah in the belly of the fish really had the typical significance which Christ attributes to it . . . it can neither be a myth  or  dream,  nor  a  parable,  nor  merely  a  visionary  occurrence experienced by the prophet; but must have had as much objective reality

as the facts of the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ." J. Vernon McGee argued that Jonah died and God raised him back to life on the basis of Jesus'  words  about  him  (Matt.  12:39-40). Most  conservative  expositors  believe  that Jesus' prediction does not require that interpretation. It is unlikely that the writer would have given us the name of Jonah's father if he was not a real person. Furthermore, the narrator presented Jonah as a real person, not a mythical or fictitious figure. The main argument against the book being historical is Jonah's surviving three days and nights in the fish's belly (1:17). However, various writers have documented many similar miraculous  deliverances.  Since  such  a  survival  is  physically  possible,  we  should  not dismiss the historical view, especially since Jesus endorsed Jonah's "resurrection." What difference does it make if Jonah was not historical but fictional? The main effect is that,  if  Jonah  was  not  a  real  person,  then  the  force  of  Jesus'  appeal  to  his  experience would  have  been  considerably  weakened.  If  Jonah  had  not  spent  three  days  and  three nights in a fish's belly, would Jesus' death have had to be literal? Perhaps Jesus was only talking about a spiritual or legendary experience similar to dying. Jesus based His sign of the prophet Jonah on the historicity of Jonah and his experience in the fish, which Jesus' contemporaries took literally.

5.4 Genre

The  book  is  probably  a  sensational  didactic  prophetic  historical  narrative  in  its  literary genre."The  concern  of  a  number  of  OT  prophetic  narratives  is  to  trace  the process whereby a divine oracle was fulfilled. This book, on the contrary, breaks the pattern surprisingly by showing how and why a divine oracle, concerning the destruction of Nineveh, was not fulfilled.

5.5 Purpose

The book is a revelation to God's people of His sovereign power and loving concern for all His creatures, even cattle (4:11). This revelation came first to Jonah personally, and then  through  him  to  the  Jews.  It  was  not  primarily  a  revelation  to  the  Ninevites.  Their responsibility was simply to repent and humble themselves. This revelation should have moved  the  Israelites  to  respond  as  the  Assyrians  did,  namely:  with  repentance  and humility.  They  faced  similar  threats,  first  from  the  Assyrians  and  then  from  the Babylonians. Jonah's lack of concern for the Ninevites contrasts with God's concern for them that was to be the pattern for His people. "The main purpose of the book is to teach Israelites that God loves other nations. "The  Book  of  Jonah  is  one  of  the  most  relevant  books  for  the  present time.

5.6 Canonicity

The  earliest  extra-biblical  reference  to  this  book  is  in  Ecclesiasticus  49:10.  There,  Ben Sira,  who  lived  no  later  than  190  B.C.,  referred  to  "the  twelve  prophets,"  namely,  the writers  of  the  Minor  Prophet  books,  which  includes  Jonah.  The  Jewish  rabbis  never challenged the canonicity of this book.

5.7 Message

The  Book  of  Jonah  does  not  contain  the  record  of  a  prophet's  message  as  much  as  the record  of  a  prophet's  experience.  That  feature  makes  Jonah  distinctive  among  the prophetic  books.  This  prophet's  experiences  are  what  we  need  to  look  at  to  learn  the message  of  this  book.  That  is  also  true  of  the  Former  Prophets  books:  Joshua,  Judges, Samuel,  and  Kings.  They,  too,  teach  by  recording  selected  experiences  more  than prophetic oracles. There are many incidental features of this story, such as the ship, the storm, the fish, the gourd,  the  worm,  the  hot  wind,  and  even  Nineveh.  They  are  important  parts  of  the revelation, but they do not give us the message of the book. It is the major characters of the story that do that. The major characters are God and Jonah. God's dealings with Jonah are even more important than His dealings with the Ninevites, from  the  standpoint  of  the  book's  revelation.  These  dealings  reveal  God's  attitude  and activity toward the nations, and toward His own people—for the nations' sake. We have here  a  revelation  of  Yahweh  and  a  revelation  of  the  responsibility  of  Yahweh's representatives.

PROPHET MICAH-VI                   

6.1 Title and Writer

The title, as usual in the prophetical books of  the  Old  Testament,  comes  from  the  name  of the traditional writer. The  name  "Micah"  is  a  shortened  form  of "Micaiah,"   which   means:   "Who   is   like Yahweh?"  This  was  an  appropriate  name since  Micah  helped  the  people  understand what  Yahweh  is  like.  There  are  many  other Bible characters with the same name. Another Micaiah, the son of Imlah, served as a prophet in the Northern Kingdom during the reign of King  Ahab  of  Israel  (874-853  B.C.,  1  Kings 22:8-28;     2     Chron.     18:3-27).     Micah's hometown  was  Moresheth-gath,  which  stood  about  25  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem  in Judah (1:1), between Azekah and Marisa. It was called Moresheth-gath (1:14) because it was fairly close to the Philistine town of Gath. Moresheth-gath was also about six miles northeast of Lachish, an important Judean town in Micah's day, because it stood on an international  trade  route.  Since  Moresheth-gath  stood  only  about  a  day's  walk  west  of Tekoa,  Amos'  hometown,  these  prophets,  who  were  roughly  contemporary,  may  have known  each  other. However,  Amos'  ministry  may  have  been  over  by  the  time  Micah began his.Amos prophesied during the reign of King Uzziah of Judah (Amos 1:1), and Micah prophesied during the reigns of Kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah, who followed   Uzziah   (Mic.   1:1).   This   probably   means   that   Micah   was   a   younger contemporary of Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah.

6.2 Unity

Critics of the book have tried to prove that it is the product of several writers or editors (redactors).  The  reason  for  this  view  is  its  lack  of  apparent  coherence.  Chapters 4—7 have become the target of most critical attacks, yet the book is harmonious in its basic structure.

6.3 Date And Place Of Composition

Micah  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  the  Judean  kings  Jotham  (750-732  B.C.),  Ahaz (732-715 B.C.), and Hezekiah (715-686 B.C.; 1:1). This made him a late eighth-century B.C. contemporary of Isaiah, who also ministered in the Southern Kingdom of Judah (cf. Isa. 1:1), and Amos and Hosea, who ministered in the Northern Kingdom of Israel (cf. Amos 1:1; Hos. 1:1). These were years of economic affluence and international peace—but spiritual decadence—for both kingdoms, especially Israel.

6.4 Audience And Purpose

Micah  ministered  to  the  people  of  Judah,  the  Southern  Kingdom.  He  predicted  the destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, and warned the Judeans that God would discipline them, too, for their sins. As in all the prophetical books, the standard by which God measured His people was the Mosaic Covenant. If they obeyed, they would enjoy blessing, but if they disobeyed, they could expect punishment (cf. Lev. 6; Deut. 28). Micah, too, pointed out how the Israelites had broken the covenant and that judgment  was  inevitable,  but  he  also  promised  ultimate  restoration  in  view  of  God's promises to the patriarchs. Micah never used the word "covenant" (Heb. berit), but it is clear from what he wrote that thoughts of the covenant were always in his mind. Isaiah  ministered  in  Jerusalem  and  had  easy  access  to  the  court  of  the  kings.  He ministered  to  the  kings  and  princes  as  well  as  the  ordinary  citizens.  Micah  ministered mainly outside Jerusalem among the ordinary Judahites. Micah was primarily a prophet of  the  poorer,  ordinary  Israelites  and  a  friend  of  the  oppressed.  Micah's  ministry  was more rural, like Amos', and Isaiah's was more cosmopolitan. Micah was concerned with personal and social righteousness (contemporary issues), also like Amos, and Isaiah was concerned with more and larger issues covering the whole scope of history from his own day to the end times. Micah's theme is true religion (cf. Amos; James 1:27). True religion is not conformity to external rituals but the practice of righteousness in personal and social life. His thesis is that God will discipline His own with judgment for their sins, but He will also fulfill His covenant promises in the future.

6.5 Structure and Emphases

The  Book  of  Micah  consists  of  three  messages,  each  of  which  begins  "Hear"  (Heb. shema;  cf.  Deut.  6:4).  They  may  have  been  messages  that  he  preached,  or  probably condensations  of  several  addresses  he  delivered  during  his  ministry. 6   In  each  one  the theme of judgment is prominent, but there is also mention of restoration and a remnant (2:12;  4:7;  5:7-8;  7:18). 7   Eventually  God  would  restore  the  Israelites  to  a  position  of world prominence under their 

Messiah.

6.6 Distinctive Characteristics

The main aspects of God that Micah emphasized were His sovereignty, self-consistency, and His leadership of all events and His people toward the fulfillment of all His ultimate plans and purposes for them. Proportionately,  this  book  has  more  prophecies  about  the  advent  and  kingdom  of Messiah, and Israel's future, than any other prophetic book. The future role of the Davidic dynasty, and its capital city, Jerusalem, receive greater attention in this prophecy than in the other eighth-century B.C. Minor Prophets (Jonah, Hosea, and Amos). "Like his contemporary Isaiah, Micah stressed God's incomparability." "He had Amos' passion for justice and Hosea's heart of love." Like  all  the  other  eighth-century  B.C.  prophets,  Micah  also  attacked  the  idolatry  that accompanied the acceptance of Canaanite worship. However, his distinctive burden was the social injustice that marked the ruling class (2:1, 8-9; 3:11; 6:11; cf. Amos). He was a champion of  civil  rights.  He  has  often  been called,  "the  prophet  of  the  poor,"  or,  more accurately, the prophet of the oppressed middle class. Micah wrote about the coming Messiah. He predicted His birthplace, lineage, and origin (5:2), His future reign (4:1-7; 5:4), and he referred to Him as Israel's king (2:13) and ruler (5:2).

6.7 Message

Micah directed all the nations to witness God's judgment of His Chosen People in these litigation speeches (rib [lit. lawsuit] oracles). He wanted the people of the earth to learn that  Yahweh  is  sovereign  by  observing  His  dealings  with  Judah.  If  Israel  had  been faithful to God's purpose for her, all the nations would have learned how wonderful it can be  to  live  under  the  government  of  Yahweh.  But  Israel  had  failed  in  her  calling. Therefore, Micah pointed out—for the benefit of all people—that those who serve under God's government can expect judgment when they fail in their calling. As a police officer who breaks the law gets more severe treatment in court than the ordinary citizen, because of his calling, so the people of Judah got more severe treatment from the Lord, because of their calling. Micah was very much aware of the throne in heaven, God's throne, that symbolized His eternal sovereignty over all people, including His chosen people. He was also aware of the failure of the throne on earth, the failure of King Ahaz of Judah. The  unique  contribution  of  Micah  is  twofold:  First,  this  prophet  unmasked  and denounced the false rulers. Second, he unveiled and proclaimed the true Ruler. The false rulers  were  the  princes,  priests,  and  prophets  that  surrounded  him.  The  true  Ruler  was someone whom Micah saw coming in the future to rule and reign properly.

PROPHET NAHUM-VII

7.1 Title and Writer

The title of the book comes from the name of its writer.We know nothing about Nahum ("compassion," "consolation," or "comfort") other than what  we  read  in  this  book.  His  name  proved  significant  since  he  brought  comfort  and consolation  to  the  Judeans  with  his  prophecies.  He  was  "the  Elkoshite"  (1:1),  so  he evidently came from a town named Elkosh, but the location of such a town has yet to be discovered.  Scholars  have  suggested  that  it  stood  near  Nineveh,  in  Galilee,  near Capernaum (City of Nahum?), east of the Jordan River, or somewhere in Judah. Since he was a Jewish prophet and evidently lived after the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., a location in Judah seems most likely to me. Perhaps the Assyrians had carried his family away to Mesopotamia when they conquered the kingdom of Israel and large parts of Judah, and Nahum  somehow  managed  to  return  to  Judah  later. 1   This  may  explain  Nahum's familiarity with things Assyrian.

7.2 Unity

Some scholars have tried to prove that someone other than Nahum wrote sections of the book  (1:1;  1:1—2:3;  1:2-10;  2:4—3:19),  but  their  arguments  are  largely  speculative. Jewish  and  Christian  authorities  have  long  held  that  Nahum  was  responsible  for  the whole work "Every  one  of  the  forty-seven  verses  of  this  short  prophecy  has  been attacked  by  higher  critics  as  being  spurious.  Contemporary  critical scholarship tends to hold that at least one-third of the material was written by someone other than Nahum." The canonicity of Nahum has never been seriously challenged, and the Hebrew text has been well preserved

7.3 Date

Nahum  mentioned  the  fall  of  the  Egyptian  city  of  Thebes  (3:8),  so  we  know  he  wrote after that event, which took place in 663 B.C. The Assyrian king Ashurbanipal conqueredit. The prophet predicted the fall of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, which happened in 612 B.C., so he must have written this book between 663 and 612 B.C. (Josephus wrote that Nineveh  fell  115  years  after  Nahum's  preaching. 3   But  that  seems  incorrect.)  Evidently, Nineveh fell to the Medes.

7.4 Place of Composition

No  one  knows  for  sure  where  Nahum  was  when  he  wrote  the  book,  and  our  lack  of knowledge   of   his   home town   complicates   the   task   of   discovering   the   place   of composition.  However, traditionally  Nahum  lived  and  ministered  in  Judah,  so  most conservative scholars assume he wrote somewhere in that kingdom.

7.5 Audience and Purpose

Nahum was a Jewish prophet and wrote primarily for the Jewish people. While the main subject of his prophesying was Nineveh, his message was for the Jews. Similarly, Jonah wrote about Nineveh and Obadiah wrote only of Edom, but they also wrote for the Jews. Both  Nahum  and  Obadiah  probably  served  as  preaching  prophets  in  Judah,  as  well  as writing prophets, as Jonah did in Israel. "Nahum's  prophecy  was  the  complement  to  Jonah,  for  whereas  Jonah celebrated  God's  mercy,  Nahum  marked  the  relentless  march  of  the judgment of God against all sinners world-wide." This book claims to be an oracle (1:1, an uplifting and or threatening prophecy). While most of the book threatens Nineveh with destruction, there are also words of comfort for the people of Judah (1:12, 15; 2:2). Nahum revealed that Yahweh would destroy Nineveh as  punishment  for  the  Assyrians'  cruelty  to  many  nations,  including  the  Northern Kingdom  of  Israel,  in  722  B.C.,  and  Judah.  This  was  a  comforting  message  for  the remaining Jews who were presently living under Assyria's shadow in Judah. Assyria had destroyed  many  Judean  cities  and  had  even  besieged  Jerusalem,  unsuccessfully,  in  701 B.C.  The  purpose  of  Nahum's  book,  then,  was  to  announce  Nineveh's  fall  and  thereby comfort the Judean Jews with the assurance that their God was indeed sovereign and just. "God  is  a  just  governor  of  the  nations  who  will  punish  wicked  Nineveh and restore His own people.""Even  though  God  has  chosen  Assyria  to  act  as  his  instrument  of punishment against the rebellious and recalcitrant Israel (Is. 7:17; 10:5-6), he holds that nation corporately responsible for the excesses and atrocities committed in fulfilling this role (Is. 10:7-19; cf. Zp. 2:14-15).

7.6 Literary Form

Nahum contains a prophecy of the future destruction of a city that did fall. Critics of the Bible who do not believe that the prophets could possibly predict the future have tried to explain what Nahum wrote as a description of the fall of Nineveh after the fact. Some of them  consider  the  book  as  a  piece  of  liturgy  written  for  the  Israelites'  annual "enthronement  festival"  in  Jerusalem.  This  festival  supposedly  celebrated  Yahweh's enthronement over His people, though there is no biblical evidence that it ever occurred. Other ancient Near Eastern nations conducted similar enthronement festivals. The Book of Nahum was, according to this view, a collection of writings of various literary types that  an  editor  compiled  to  magnify  Yahweh's  greatness  by  reflecting  on  Nineveh's destruction. While  conservatives  reject  this  low  view  of  prophecy,  it  is  obvious  that  the  book  does consist of several different types of literature, as do most of the other prophetical books. We believe that God guided Nahum to express the messages He gave him in a variety of ways using several different forms of expression.

7.7 Message

The story that Nahum told is a story of the utter and irrevocable destruction of a great city and  a  great  people.  Nahum  told  the  story  as  prophecy,  but  what  he  predicted  is  now history.  Nahum lived when  Assyria  was  threatening  Judah's  existence.  The  prophet predicted  that  God  would  destroy  the  proud  and  cruel  capital  of  the  Assyrian  Empire: Nineveh. So thorough was Nineveh's destruction that for centuries travelers passed over its ruins without knowing that this mighty and terrible city lay buried beneath their feet. Only in fairly modern times (1842, to be exact) have archaeologists laid bare its ruins. Such was the literal and complete fulfillment of Nahum's prophecy. The message of Nahum is quite compact. It is clear in statement, logical in argument, and definite in its declarations. In form, it is a vision, a vision of Yahweh, of Yahweh's anger, and of Yahweh acting in anger. Its permanent value is its unique picture of the wrath of God.  The  prophet  begins  the  revelation  of  his  vision  by  painting  an  angry  Yahweh (1:2). 19  This is not an aspect of God's character that is popular in our day, but it is one that is prominent throughout the Bible. Notice  first  the  prophet's  vision  of  God.  All  the  prophets  were  impressed  with  a characteristic  of  God  that  shaped  their  prophecies.  Isaiah  saw  God's  holiness.  Jeremiah saw God's judgment. Ezekiel saw God's glory. Micah saw God's leadership. And Nahum saw God's wrath. Nahum  used  four  words  to  describe  God's  anger  that  we  could  translate  "furious," "avenging,"  "wrathful,"  and  "angry."  They  all  occur  in  a  very  brief  passage,  1:2-3, heightening  the  solemnity  of  Yahweh's  anger.  The  Hebrew  word  that  I  have  translated "furious" presupposes love and expresses an emotional, subjective action. God's jealousy is not self-centered or petty, but instead it expresses His zealous concern for the welfare of  those  He  loves.  "Avenging,"  which  occurs  three  times  in  these  two  verses,  does  not mean  taking  revenge,  but  rather  the  executing  of  retribution:  paying  back  to  someone what  that  one  deserves.  It  expresses  a  volitional  action,  an  objective  rather  than  a subjective response.

PROPHET HABAKKUK-VIII

8.1 Title and Writer

The title of the book is the name of its writer. All we know for sure about Habakkuk is that he was a prophet who lived during the pre-exilic  period  of  Israel's  history.  We  know  equally  little  about  his  seventh-century  B.C. contemporaries Nahum and Zephaniah. The meaning of his name is questionable. It may come from the Hebrew verb habaq, which means "to fold the hands" or "to embrace." In the  latter  case,  it  might  mean  "one  who  embraces"  or  "one  who  is  embraced."  Luther thought  it  signified  that  Habakkuk  embraced  his  people  to  comfort  and  uphold  them. Jerome  interpreted  it  to  mean  that  he  embraced  the  problem  of  "divine  justice  in  the world,"  the  subject  of  the  book. The  simple  designation,  "the  prophet,"  with  no  other identifying  description,  characterizes  only  two  other  prophetical  books:  Haggai  and Zechariah. So Habakkuk is the only book so designated among the pre-exilic Prophets. The  content  of  the  book,  which  includes  wisdom  literature  and  a  psalm  of  praise, indicates that Habakkuk was a poet as well as a prophet.  The  Septuagint  addition  to  the  Book  of  Daniel,  the  apocryphal  Bel  and  the  Dragon, mentions  Habakkuk  in  its  title  as  "the  son  of  Jeshua  of  the  tribe  of  Levi."  It  records  a legend about him that is pure fantasy. Supposedly an angel commanded Habakkuk to take a meal to Daniel, who was in the lions' den a second time. When the prophet complained that he did not know where the den was, the angel picked him up by a lock of his hair and carried him to the spot (Bel vv. 33-39). According to rabbinic sources, Habakkuk was the son of the Shunammite woman whom Elisha restored to life (2 Kings 4). The basis for this  theory  is  that  Elisha'  servant  told  the  woman  that  she  would  "embrace"  a  son  (2 Kings 4:16), and Habakkuk's name is similar to the Hebrew word for "embrace."The New Testament writers told us nothing about the prophet. There are traditions about who Habakkuk was that have little basis in fact but are interesting nonetheless. Since the last  verse  of  the  book  gives  a  musical  notation  similar  to  some  psalms,  some  students concluded that he was a musician and possibly a Levite. "The  precise  relationship  of  the  prophets  with  the  temple  is  one  of  the most debated elements in Old Testament study.

8.2 Unity

The major challenge to the unity of the book has come from liberal scholars who view psalmic material such as chapter 3 as postexilic. The commentary on Habakkuk found at Qumran  does  not  expound  this  psalm,  either.  However,  the  continuity  of  theme  that continues through the whole book, plus the absence of any compelling reasons to reject chapter 3, argue for the book's unity.

8.3 Date

References in the book help us date it approximately, but make it impossible to be precise or  dogmatic.  The  Lord  told  Habakkuk  that  He  was  raising  up  the  Chaldeans  (Neo-Babylonians),  the  fierce  and  impetuous  people  who  were  already  marching  throughout the whole earth, and that they would expand their territory even farther (1:6). The first of the Neo-Babylonian kings was Nabopolassar (627-605 B.C.). This reference points to a time before 605 B.C., when Babylon defeated the united forces of Egypt and Assyria at the battle of Carchemish, and became the major power in the ancient Near East. It may even  point  to  a  time  before  612  B.C.  when  the  Babylonians  (with  the  Medes  and Scythians)  destroyed  Nineveh.  However,  other  references  in  the  book,  that  describe conditions in Judah and the ancient Near East, support a date between 608 and 605 B.C. (cf.  1:7-11). King  Jehoiakim  ruled  Judah  from  609  to  598  B.C.,  so  it  was  apparently during his reign that Habakkuk prophesied (cf. 2 Kings 23:36—24:7; 2 Chron. 36:5-8). The background to Habakkuk is the decline of the Judean kingdom that began with the death of King Josiah in 609 B.C. Leon Wood dated this book more precisely at about 605 B.C.

8.4 Place Of Composition

Since the Chaldeans were on the rise when Habakkuk wrote, the prophet must have lived in Judah. The Northern Kingdom of Israel had passed out of existence in 722 B.C. with the Assyrian invasion. Thus Habakkuk was a prophet of the Southern Kingdom who lived in times of increasing degeneracy and fear.

8.5 Audience and Purpose

The people to whom Habakkuk ministered were Judeans who apparently lived under the reign  of  King  Jehoiakim.  During  his  reign  the  Israelites  were  looking  for  help  in  the wrong  places,  Egypt  and  Assyria,  in  view  of  growing  Babylonian  power.  They  should have been looking to the Lord primarily, and their failure to do so was one of the burdens of Jeremiah, Habakkuk's contemporary. Habakkuk's  concerns  were  more  philosophical,  however.  What  disturbed  him  was  that the  sovereign  Lord  was  not  responding  to  Habakkuk's  evil  generation  and  its  internal injustices. He voiced his concern to Yahweh in prayer (1:2-4). The Lord replied that He was working. He was raising up a nation that would punish His people for their covenant unfaithfulness (1:5-11). This raised another problem for Habakkuk, which he also took to the Lord in prayer. How could He use a more wicked nation than Judah to punish God's chosen  people  (1:12—2:1)?  The  Lord  explained  that  He  would  eventually  punish  the Babylonians  for  their  wickedness  too  (2:2-20).  The  final  chapter  is  a  hymn  of  praise extolling Yahweh for His wise ways. The purpose of the book, then, was to vindicate the justice of God so God's people would have hope and encouragement.

8.6 Literary Form

This  book  employs  a  variety  of  literary  forms.  The  first  part  of  the  book  contains  a dialogue  between  Habakkuk  and  his  God  that  alternates  between  lament  and  oracle (1:2—2:5). The second part is a taunt or mocking song that the prophet put in the mouths of  the  nations  that  had  suffered  under  Babylon's  oppression.  It  consists  of  five  "woes" (2:6-20). The third part is a psalm, complete with musical directions (ch. 3).

8.7 Distinctive Features

Habakkuk  is  a  unique  book.  Unlike  other  prophets  who  declared  God's message  to  people  this  prophet  dialogued  with  God  about  people.  Most Old  Testament  prophets  proclaimed  divine  judgment.  Habakkuk  pleaded for divine judgment. In contrast with the typical indictment, this little book records  an  intriguing  interchange  between  a  perplexed  prophet  and  his Maker. The  prophet  asked  some  of  the  most  penetrating  questions  in  all literature,  and  the  answers  are  basic  to  a  proper  view  of  God  and  his relation to history. If God's initial response sounded the death knell for any strictly nationalistic covenant theology of Judah, his second reply outlined in a positive sense the fact that all history was hastening to a conclusion that was [as] certain as it was satisfying.

8.8 Message

Habakkuk  is  unusual  among  the  prophetical  books  in  that  it  tells  a  story.  In  this,  it  is similar  to  Jonah,  which  is  also  the  record  of  a  prophet's  experience.  Jonah  gives  the account of a prophet's failure to sympathize with God. Habakkuk gives the account of a prophet's failure to understand God. Jonah deals with a problem posed by Nineveh, and Habakkuk  deals  with  a  problem  posed  by  Babylon.  Habakkuk,  like  Jonah,  also  records one major event in the life of the prophet. Most of the other prophetic books record the messages  and  activities  of  a  prophet  over  an  extended  period  of  years.  Habakkuk  does contain prophecies, so it is like the other prophetic books in this respect.

PROPHET ZEPHANIAH-IX

9.1 Title And Writer

The  title  of  the  book  comes  from  the  name  of  its  writer.  "Zephaniah"  means  "Yahweh Hides  [or  Has  Hidden],"  "Hidden  in  Yahweh,"  "Yahweh's  Watchman,"  or  "Yahweh Treasured."  The  uncertainty  arises  over  the  etymology  of  the  prophet's  name,  which scholars dispute. I prefer "Yahweh Hides." Zephaniah was the great-great-grandson of Hezekiah (1:1), evidently King Hezekiah of Judah. This is not at all certain, but I believe it is likely. Only two other Hezekiahs appear on  the  pages  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  they  both  lived  in  the  postexilic  period.  The Chronicler mentioned one of these (1 Chron. 3:23), and the writers of Ezra and Nehemiah mentioned the other (Ezra 2:16; Neh. 7:21). If he was indeed a descendant of the king, this would make him the writing prophet with the most royal blood in his veins, except for  David  and  Solomon.  Apart  from  the  names  of  his  immediate  forefathers,  we  know nothing  more  about  him  for  sure,  though  it  seems  fairly  certain  where  he  lived.  His references to Judah and Jerusalem (1:10-11) seem to indicate that he lived in Jerusalem,  which would fit a king's descendant.

9.2 Unity

Criticism of the unity of Zephaniah has not had great influence. Zephaniah's prediction of  Nineveh's  fall  (2:15;  612  B.C.)  led  critics who  do  not  believe  that  the  prophets  could predict  the  future to  date  the  book  after  that  event.  Differences  in  language  and  style influenced some critics to divide the book up and identify its various parts with diverse sources. Yet the unity of the message and flow of the entire book, plus ancient belief in its unity, have convinced most conservative scholars to regard Zephaniah as the product of one writer.

9.3 Date

Zephaniah  ministered  during  the  reign  of  King  Josiah  of  Judah  (640-609  B.C.;  1:1). Scholars  debate  just  when  during  his  reign  Zephaniah  wrote,  before 2   or  after 3   Josiah's reforms, which began about 622 B.C. There is support for both views. 4  Zephaniah made no explicit reference to Josiah's reforms, and the evidence is really insufficient to settle the debate. Zephaniah's  reference  to  the  future  destruction  of  Nineveh  (2:13)  definitely  fixed  his writing  before  that  event  in  612  B.C.  So  the  prophet  ministered  between  640  and  612 B.C.  His  contemporaries  were  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  and  Jeremiah,  though  Jeremiah's  ministry continued beyond the destruction of Jerusalem, which took place in 586 B.C.

9.4 Place Of Composition

References to Jerusalem in 1:10-11 seem to indicate that Zephaniah knew Jerusalem well. Since  he  ministered  to  the  Southern  Kingdom,  it  is  likely  that  he  lived  in  Judah  and probably in Jerusalem.

9.5 Audience And Purpose

The  fact  that  Yahweh's  word  came  to  Zephaniah  during  Josiah's  reign  (640-609  B.C.),  means that he could not have ministered to the Northern Kingdom, because it fell in 722 B.C. Thus, Zephaniah's audience consisted of the people of Judah: the surviving Southern Kingdom. He apparently ministered primarily to the upper echelons of society rather than to the average Israelites, as evidenced by his references to the princes, judges, prophets, and priests (1:8-9; 3:3-4). The  political  situation  in  Judah  during  Josiah's  reign  was  fairly  peaceful.  Following Assyria's capture of Samaria in 722 B.C., the Assyrian Empire began to decline. With its decline,  Nabopolassar,  the  first  of  the  Neo-Babylonian  kings  (626-605  B.C.),  began  to lead  Babylonia  forward.  Assyria  declined  and  Babylonia  advanced  until  Babylonia, assisted by the Medes and Scythians, destroyed Nineveh in 612 B.C. and a few years later replaced Assyria as the dominant power in the ancient Near East. This happened in 605 B.C. when the Babylonians defeated the Assyrians and Egyptians at Carchemish. Judah benefited during this transitional period in Near Eastern politics. Josiah was able to get rid of some Assyrian religious practices, and he extended Judah's territory north into the tribal  territory  of  Naphtali.  Unfortunately,  Josiah  died  prematurely  in  609  B.C.  (cf.  2 Chron. 35:20-27). Josiah's  evil  predecessors,  Manasseh  (695-642  B.C.)  and  Amon  (642-640  B.C.),  had encouraged the people of Judah to depart from the Lord for over 50 years, so wickedness had  become  ingrained  in  them.  In  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiah's  reign  (622  B.C.), Hilkiah the priest discovered the Law of Moses in the temple, and after Josiah read it, he instituted major reforms throughout Judah. Josiah's reforms were good because they were official.  He  eliminated  much  of  the  display  of  idolatry  in  the  land  and  revived  the celebration of the Passover, among other things. See 2 Kings 22:4-25 and 2 Chronicles 34:3—35:19  for  lists  of  his  extensive  reforms.  But  unfortunately  his  reforms  did  not change the hearts of most of the people, as Jeremiah revealed in his earlier prophecies. So the people to whom Zephaniah ministered had a long history of formal religion without much real commitment to Yahweh. God sent a prophetic word to Zephaniah because the Judeans of his day still needed to get right  with  Him  in  their  hearts.  The  prophet  announced  that  God  was  going  to  send judgment on Judah for her wickedness. He also assured the godly few in the nation, the remnant, that the Lord would preserve them and remain true to His promises concerning ultimate  worldwide  blessing  for  Israel  in  the  future.  Perhaps  1:7  summarizes  what  the book is all about better than any other single verse: "Be silent before the Lord God! For the day of the LORD is near.

9.6 Literary Form

Zephaniah's  style  is  chiefly  characterized  by  a  unity  and  harmony  of composition  plus  energy  of  style.  Rapid  and  effective  alternations  of threats and promises also characterize his style."All of Zephaniah is poetry with the exception of 1:1 and 2:10-11. Zephaniah  can  hardly  be  considered  great  as  a  poet.  He  does  not  rank with  Isaiah,  nor  even  with  Hosea  in  this  particular. . . .  He  had  an imperative  message  to  deliver  and  proceeded  in  the  most  direct  and forceful way to discharge his responsibility. What he lacked in grace and charm,  he  in  some  measure  atoned  for  by  the  vigour  and  clarity  of  his speech. He realised the approaching terror  so  keenly  that  he  was  able  to present  it  vividly  and  convincingly  to  his  hearers.  No  prophet  has  made the picture of the day of Yahweh more real. Literary genres used include judgment oracles (1:2-3, 4-6, 8-9, etc.), calls for  response  (1:7;  2:1-3;  3:8)—including  a  call  to  praise  and  a  psalm  of praise (3:14-17)—as well as salvation oracles (3:9-13, 18-20).

9.7 Distinctive Features

The Book of Zephaniah has been called "a compendium of the oracles of the prophets.This is true for two reasons. First, Zephaniah's general message is similar to that of most of  the  other  writing  prophets.  Second,  he  used  the  same  terms  as  several  of  the  other prophets (cf. 1:7 and Hab. 2:20; 1:7 and Joel 1:15; 1:7 and Isa. 34:6; 2:14 and Isa. 13:21; 34:11; 2:15 and Isa. 47:8). Zephaniah  reintroduced  the  message  of  Joel  and  Obadiah;  however,  for him the day of the Lord was both a day of world-wide judgment and a day when Judah would be punished. Obadiah,  Joel,  Amos,  and  Isaiah  had  all  spoken  of  this  day,  but Zephaniah   alone   emphasized   more   strenuously   than   them   all   the universality   of   its   judgment   while   also   surprisingly   predicting   the conversion of the nations as one of its fruits. Zephaniah  contains  more  references  to  "the  day  of  the  LORD"  than  any  other  Old Testament book. This phrase sometimes refers to the past, sometimes to the near future, sometimes to the distant future, and sometimes to the far distant, eschatological future. The phrase always refers to some period of time in which God is working in the world in a  recognizable  way.  It  usually  refers  to  a  time  of  blasting,  but  sometimes  it  refers  to  a time of blessing. Zephaniah  1:14-18  has  been  called  "emergent  apocalyptic.  This  pericope  contains material that would one day become prominent in Jewish apocalyptic literature. Theologically, Zephaniah stressed the sovereign justice of Yahweh (1:2-3, 7, 14-18; 3:8) and His willingness to receive the repentant (2:3). He also emphasized the wickedness of man (1:3-6, 17; 3:1, 4). The theme of Yahweh's relationship to Jerusalem is prominent in Zephaniah as well (1:4-13; 3:1-7, 11-17).  Structurally,  the  book  is  a  carefully  crafted  collection  of  oracles  that  compose  one coherent message. The  Book  of  Zephaniah  does  not  contain  two  or  three  prophetic addresses,  but  the  quintessence  of  the  oral  proclamations  of  the  prophet condensed into one lengthened prophecy. Zephaniah's  prophecy  has  a  more  general  character,  embracing  both judgment  and  salvation  in  their  totality,  so  as  to  form  one  complete picture.

9.8 MESSAGE

The  key  to  the  Book  of  Zephaniah  is  the  phrase  "the  day  of  the  Lord."  This  phrase appears in most of the prophetic literature of the Old Testament. As the prophets used the phrase, "the day of the Lord" can be a past day, a day in the relatively near future, or a day in the far distant (eschatological) future. It is any day in which God is obviously at work in human affairs. Wherever we find the phrase "the day of the Lord," it always suggests a contrast with the "day" of man. The day of man is any day when man appears to be in control of human affairs. It Is a day of God's patience. The day of the Lord is any day when God is clearly in control of human affairs. It is a day of God's judgment and or blessing. The phrase "the day of the Lord" is by no means unique to Zephaniah, but it is the key to the message of this book. Zephaniah used it more frequently than any other prophet. It was his burden, and he explained the meaning of this phrase more than any other prophet. Zephaniah  ministered  during  the  reign  of  King  Josiah  of  Judah  (1:1).  It  is  rather remarkable  that  the  prophet  did  not  refer  to  Josiah's  reforms,  which  were  his  great spiritual contribution to the history of Judah. Perhaps the reason for the lack of mention is that Josiah's reforms were a result of his personal dedication to Yahweh, rather than the result  of  a  revival  of  spiritual  life  among  the  Judahites  generally.  Huldah's  prophecy reflects this difference (cf. 2 Kings 22:14-20; 2 Chron. 34:22-28). Zephaniah took no note of  Josiah's  good  heart,  but  addressed  the  spiritual  need  of  the  Judahites.  The  contrast between this king and his subjects is striking. The "day of the Lord" that Zephaniah predicted was an eschatological day in which God would judge the people of Judah and Jerusalem. This judgment will take place during the first part of the eschatological day of the Lord, the period we refer to as the Tribulation. Zephaniah also predicted restoration following judgment (ch. 3). This refers to the second part of the eschatological day of the Lord, the period we refer to as the Millennium. But  Zephaniah  also  had  in  mind  an  eschatological  day  of  the  Lord  even  after  the Millennium. This seems clear from the extent of devastation he described, as well as the picture of restoration he painted. That "day of the Lord" will be the judgment of the Lord at the end of the Millennium, including the destruction of the present earth and heavens, which will be followed by the creation of new heavens and a new earth. Other  revelation  helps  us  see  that  there  are,  in  fact,  two  periods  of  future  judgment followed  by  restoration,  not  just  one,  which  we  might  conclude  if  all  we  had  was Zephaniah's prophecy (cf. 2 Pet. 3; Rev.). The timeless value of the Book of Zephaniah is its unveiling of the day of the Lord. The book does not reveal exactly when that day will come. The only chronological reference in the book is in the first verse, which locates Zephaniah's ministry in history. The book pictures  God  judging  in  the  undefined  future.  This  is  not  judgment  through  armies  of invading soldiers, or through any human instrumentality. It is direct judgment from God Himself. There  are  three  things  that  this  book  reveals  about  this  coming  day  of  the  Lord:  its content, its extent, and its intent. The content of the day of the Lord is clear from 1:2-3. God will visit earth with direct and positive retribution, not in the general administrative sense of bringing people to account eventually, but in the narrower sense of executing vengeance on humanity in cataclysmic judgment  (1:14-16).  This  judgment  will  fall  in  spite  of  human  unbelief  (1:12).  When people  will  be  disregarding  God,  He  will  break  into  human  history  dynamically,supernaturally, to judge. Peter's description of the day of the Lord is remarkably similar (2 Pet. 3:1-10). People today are saying what these two prophets said they would say so long ago. They are saying that God will never intervene in judgment this way. The great statement of the Book of Zephaniah is that God will indeed do this in a day yet future. What will be the extent of this judgment? Zephaniah reveals that it will be discriminating. His people Israel will be the special target of this judgment, though all humanity will also suffer (1:12). As we can see from this verse, the last stages of sin are complacency and indifference.  It  is  an  interesting  fact  of  history  that  complacency  and  indifference  have frequently preceded the destruction of great empires of the past. Assyria fell to Babylonia because  she  was  complacent  and  indifferent  (cf.  Nahum).  Remember  the  fall  of  the Babylonian Empire that we read of in Daniel 5. The Roman Empire fell to the Visigoths from  the  north  because  it  had  become  complacent  and  indifferent.  And  earlier,  the Northern  Kingdom  of  Israel,  and  later  the  Southern  Kingdom  of  Judah,  fell  to  Assyria and  Babylonia  respectively  for  the  same  reasons.  The  spirit  that  produces  these conditions is disregard for God and His Word (3:1-2). The result of such a spirit is that the leaders of the people forsake their proper servant role and turn to abusing the people to fatten themselves (3:3-4). Reading  Zephaniah  is  somewhat  like  watching  a  science  fiction  movie  about  a  nuclear disaster, that leaves nothing but a sterile, uninhabited, windswept landscape with no life, no flowers, no fruit, and no beauty. What produces this horrible condition? The reason is the vast number of people who are complacent and indifferent, who disregard and ignore God. They do not obey God's voice, receive His correction, trust in Him, or draw near to Him. They are materialized, self-centered, living in luxury, and oblivious to their danger. So God steps in and turns their complacency into chaos, disorganizes their orderly lives, and  purges  them  in  their  indifference.  All  that  is  left  is  a  wind-swept  desert  (cf.  the Flood). What  is  the  intent  of  this  terrible  activity?  It  is  the  creation  of  a  new  order,  with  God Himself  enthroned  among  His  creatures  (3:17).  Chapter  3  of  this  prophecy  is  such  a different  picture  of  the  future,  from  what  we  have  in  chapters  1  and  2,  that  some commentators have said that a different person must have written it. Chapter 3 describes songs  instead  of  sorrow,  service  instead  of  selfishness,  and  solidarity  instead  of scattering.  That  is  the  intent  of  this  judgment.  Marvelous  restoration  will  follow devastating judgment. The  living  message  of  this  book  is  twofold.  We  can  rejoice  in  the  assurance  of  this coming  judgment  followed  by  restoration,  and  we  have  a  responsibility  in  view  of  this coming judgment followed by restoration. t is our privilege to "rejoice in the hope of the glory of God" that will be manifested at the end of God's judgment (cf. Rom. 5:2b). Even though the day of the Lord will involve the destruction of all things that destroy, it will also begin a new era of singing, service, and solidarity. That era will be the millennial reign of Christ first, and then the eternal state. It is also our responsibility to live holy and godly lives as we anticipate the coming of "new heavens and a new earth in which righteousness will dwell" (2 Pet. 3:11-13). We need to be diligent to be found at peace with God, "spotless and blameless" in our lives (2 Pet. 3:14). We need to be on guard that we do not fall away from our own faithfulness because   of   the   prevalent   "error   of   unprincipled   people"   (i.e.,   complacency   and indifference;  2  Pet.  3:17).  And  we  need  to  continue  to  "grow  in  grace  and  in  the knowledge of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ" (2 Pet. 3:18). Rejoicing and responsible living: these characteristics need to distinguish the lives of people who anticipate the day of the Lord. We  could  state  the  message  of  the  book  as  follows:  God  will  intervene  in  history, catastrophically,  to  judge  humanity's  complacency  and  indifference,  and  to  restore  His people to the conditions of blessing that He originally intended for them to enjoy.

PROPHET HAGGAI-X

10.1 Title and Writer

The title of this prophetic book is also the name of its writer. Haggai referred to himself as  simply  "the  prophet  Haggai"  (1:1;  et  al.)  We  know  nothing  about  Haggai's  parents, ancestors,  or  tribal  origin.  His  name  apparently  means  "festal"  or  possibly  "feast  of Yahweh."  This  is  appropriate  since  much  of  what  Haggai  prophesied  deals  with millennial blessings. His name is a form of the Hebrew word hag, meaning "feast." This has  led  some  students  of  the  book  to  speculate  that  Haggai's  birth  may  have  occurred during  one  of  Israel's  feasts. Ezra  mentioned  that  through  the  prophetic  ministries  of Haggai and Zechariah, the returned Jewish exiles resumed and completed the restoration of  their  temple  (Ezra  5:1;  6:14;  cf.  Zech.  8:9;  1  Esdras  6:1;  7:3;  2  Esdras  1:40; Ecclesiasticus  49:11).  Haggai's  reference  to  the  former  glory  of  the  temple  before  the Babylonians destroyed it (2:2), may or may not imply that he saw that temple. If he did, he would have been an old man when he delivered the messages that this book contains. In that case, he may have been over 70 years old when he prophesied. However, it is not at all certain that the reference in 2:2 implies that he saw the former temple. Some  editions  of  the  Greek  Septuagint  and  the  Latin  Vulgate  versions  of  the  Book  of Psalms attribute authorship of some of the Psalms to Haggai and or Zechariah (i.e., Ps. 111—112, 125—126, 137—138, and 145—149). There is no other evidence that either prophet wrote any of these psalms. The reason for the connection appears to have been the  close  association  that  these  prophets  had  with  the  temple  where  these  psalms  were sung.

10.2 Historical Background

The  Babylonians,  led  by  King  Nebuchadnezzar,  destroyed  the  city  of  Jerusalem ,including Solomon's temple, in 586 B.C. and took most of the Jews captive to Babylon. There, the Israelites could not practice their formal worship (religious cult) as the Mosaic Law prescribed, because they lacked an authorized altar and temple. They prayed toward Jerusalem   privately   (cf.   Dan.   6:10)   and   probably   publicly,   and   they   established synagogues where they assembled to hear their Law read and to worship God informally. King Cyrus of Persia allowed the Jewish exiles to return to their land in 538 B.C. At least three  waves  of  returnees  took  advantage  of  this  opportunity.  The  first  of  these  was  the group  of  almost  50,000  Jews  that  returned  under  the  leadership  of  Sheshbazzar,  and Zerubbabel  who  replaced  him,  in  537  B.C.  (Ezra  1:2-4).  Ezra  led  the  second  wave  of 1,700 men plus women and children (perhaps about 5,000 individuals) back to Jerusalem in  458  B.C.,  and  Nehemiah  led  the  third  wave  of  42,000  Israelites  back  in  444  B.C. Haggai  and  Zechariah  appear  to  have  been  two  of  the  returnees  who  accompanied Sheshbazzar, as was Joshua the high priest, though Haggai's name does not appear in the lists of returnees in the opening chapters of Ezra. During  the  year  that  followed,  the  first  group  of  returnees  rebuilt  the  brazen  altar  in Jerusalem, resumed offering sacrifices on it, celebrated the Feast of Tabernacles, and laid the foundation for the reconstruction of the (second) temple. Opposition to the rebuilding of the temple resulted in the postponement of construction for 16 years. During this long period,  apathy  toward  temple  reconstruction  set  in  among  the  residents  of  Judah  and Jerusalem. Then in 520 B.C., as a result of changes in the Persian government and the preaching of Haggai, the people resumed rebuilding the temple.  Haggai first sounded the call  to  resume  construction  in  520  B.C.,  and  Zechariah  soon  joined  him.  Zechariah's ministry lasted longer than Haggai's. The returnees finished the project about five years later in 515 B.C. (cf. Ezra 1—6). One way to calculate the 70-year captivity is: from the first  deportation  to  Babylon  in  605  B.C.  to  the  year  temple  reconstruction  began,  536 B.C.  Another  way  is:  to  count  from  the  destruction  of  the  temple  in  586  B.C  to  the completion of temple restoration in 515 B.C.

10.3 Date

Haggai delivered four messages to the restoration community, and he dated all of them in the  second  year  of  King  Darius  I  (Hystaspes)  of  Persia  (i.e.,  520  B.C.).  Ezekiel  and Daniel had probably died by this time. Haggai's ministry, as this book records it, spanned less than four months, from the first day of the sixth month (1:1) to the twenty-fourth day of  the  ninth  month  (2:20).  Haggai's  ministry  may  have  begun  before  520  B.C.  and continued a few years after it. 3  But that is speculation. In the modern calendar, these dates would have been between August 29 and December 18, 520 B.C. This means that Haggai was  the  first  writing  prophet  to  address  the  returned  Israelites.  Zechariah  began prophesying to the returnees in the eighth month of that same year (Zech. 1:1). Haggai was the most precise of all the prophets in dating his messages.

The  precision  in  dating  prophecies  that  marks  Haggai  and  Zechariah  reflects  the annalistic style of history writing that distinguished Neo-Babylonian and Persian times. Ezekiel, who was probably an older contemporary of these prophets, was the third most precise in dating his prophecies, and Daniel, another contemporary, also was precise but not  as  detailed.  Likewise  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  who  wrote  after  Haggai  and  Zechariah, showed the same interest in chronological precision. Probably  Haggai  wrote  the  book  between  520  and  515  B.C.,  the  year  the  returnees completed  the  temple.  Lack  of  reference  to  the  completion  of  the  temple,  while  not  in itself  a  strong  argument  for  this  view,  seems  reasonable—since  mention  of  the completion of the temple would have finished off the book nicely.

10.4 Place Of Composition

Haggai  obviously  preached  and  evidently  wrote  in  Jerusalem,  as  is  clear  from  his references to the temple in both chapters. Confirming this location is his reference to the nearby mountains (1:8, 11). There were no real mountains in the area of Babylonia where the Jewish exiles lived.

10.5 Audience And Purpose

Haggai was as specific about his audience as he was about when he prophesied. The first oracle  was  for  Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  who  were  the  Jewish  governor  of  Judah  and  its high priest (1:1). The prophet delivered the second one to those men and the remnant of the people (2:1). The third oracle was for the priests (2:11), and the fourth one was for Zerubbabel  (2:21).  Obviously  these  oracles  had  a  larger  audience  as  well,  namely,  the entire restoration community and eventually the general population of the world. Haggai  is  a  prophetic  history  that  intends  to  interpret  the  religious  and theological significance of the historical events that it recounts.Haggai's purpose was simple and clear. It was to motivate the Jews to build the temple. To  do  this  he  also  fulfilled  a  secondary  purpose:  he  confronted  the  people  with  their misplaced priorities. They were building their own houses but had neglected God's house. It was important to finish building the temple because only then could the people fully resume  Levitical  worship  as  the  Lord  had  specified.  They  had  gone  into  captivity  for covenant  unfaithfulness.  Thus  they  needed  to  return  to  full  obedience  to  the  Mosaic Covenant.  Furthermore,  in  the  ancient  Near  East,  the  glory  of  a  nation's  temple(s) reflected  the  glory  of  the  people's  god(s).  So  to  finish  the  temple  meant  to  glorify Yahweh. ".  .  .  he  also  wrote  to  give  the  people  hope  by  announcing  that  God's program  of  blessing  would  come  'in  a  little  while'  (Hag.  2:6)  when  God would again 'shake the heavens and the earth' (2:6, 21).”

10.6 Theological Emphases

Central to Haggai's emphasis is the temple as God's dwelling place on earth, as a center for  worship,  and  as  a  symbol  of  Yahweh's  greatness.  For  him  the  temple  was  more important  than  the  palace,  and  the  priests  were  more  important  than  the  princes.  There was  no  king  of  the  Jews  after  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  in  586  B.C.  Another  theological emphasis was the relative importance of glorifying God compared to living affluently. Governments  work  on  the  assumption  that  a  healthy  gross  national product   is   the   consequence   of   a   proper   industrial   base,   efficient management, skilled workers, and the due operation of market forces—in other  words,  that  economic  health  depends  on  an  effective  economic system. Haggai, however, rose to challenge the view that economics can be left to the economists. Here, too, we live in God's world and unless he is given the central place and honor, the laws he created will work not for our  blessing  but  for  our  bane.  Thus  Haggai  speaks  to  our  concern  that world resources should meet world need and to our longing that not only will needs be satisfied but also that life will be satisfying. He addresses the problem of inflation more explicitly than any other prophet; his book is a tract for our times."The theological problem of this period was simply this: Where was the activity and presence of God to be found? Other important themes are: holiness as a prerequisite for worship, the prophetic word as divine revelation, divine sovereignty, human responsibility, and a future for the Davidic dynasty.

 10.7 Characteristic Features

Haggai  is  the  second  shortest  book  of  the  Old  Testament,  after  Obadiah.  The  writer's literary  style  is  simple  and  direct.  The  book  is  a  mixture  of  prose  and  poetry,  the introductory sections being prose, and the oracles, poetry. The book contains four short messages that Haggai preached to the returned Jews in less than four months of one year, 520 B.C. Haggai was clearly aware that the messages he preached to the Israelites were from  God.  He  affirmed  their  divine  authority  25  times.  In  contrast  to  almost  all  the writing prophets, Haggai was successful in that the people to whom he preached listened to him and obeyed his exhortations. The truth is that few prophets have succeeded in packing into such brief compass so much spiritual common sense as Haggai did.  Interestingly, Haggai's message has none of the elements so characteristic of  the  other  biblical  prophets.  For  instance,  he  wrote  no  diatribe  against idolatry. He said nothing of social ills and abuses of the legal system, nor did  he  preach  against  adultery  or  syncretism.  His  one  theme  was rebuilding God's temple. "Most  of  the  other  prophetic  books  consist  of  collections  of  prophetic sermons and oracles. Haggai, on the other hand, consists of direct address oracles set in a prose narrative framework (1:1, 3, 12, 15; 2:1, 10, 20) such that the book appears as more of a report on Haggai's utterances and the effect they had on the hearers . . .

This book and Hosea are the only inspired prophetical writings in the Old Testament that do not contain one or more oracles against foreign nations.

10.8 Unity and Canonicity

Critics  have  not  seriously  challenged  either  the  unity  or  the  canonicity  of  Haggai.  Its place  in  the  canon  is  chronological,  leading  the  postexilic  prophetical  books  and following the pre-exilic and exilic ones.

PROPHET ZECHARIAH-XI

11.1 Title and Writer

The  title  of  this  book  comes  from  its  traditional  writer,  as  is  true  of  all  the  prophetical books  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  name  "Zechariah"  (lit Yahweh  remembers)  was  a common one among the Israelites, which identified at least 27 different individuals in the Old  Testament,  perhaps  30. 1   It  was  an  appropriate  name  for  the  writer  of  this  book, because  it  explains  that  Yahweh  remembers  His  chosen  people,  and  His  promises,  and will be faithful to them. This Zechariah was the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo (1:1, 7; cf. Ezra 5:1; 6:14; Neh. 12:4, 16). Zechariah, like Jeremiah and Ezekiel, was both a prophet and a priest. He was obviously familiar  with  priestly  things  (cf.  ch.  3;  6:9-15;  9:8,  15;  14:16,  20,  21).  Since  he  was  a young  man  (Heb.  na'ar)  when  he  began  prophesying  (2:4),  he  was  probably  born  in Babylonian captivity and returned to Palestine in 536 B.C. with Zerubbabel and Joshua. He became a leading priest in the restoration community succeeding his grandfather (or ancestor), Iddo, who also returned from captivity in 536 B.C., as the leader of his priestly family (Neh.  12:4,  16).  Zechariah's  father,  Berechiah  (1:1,  7),  evidently  never  became prominent. The Lord Jesus referred to a Zechariah, the son of Berechiah, whom the Jews murdered between the temple and the altar (Matt. 23:35). This appears to be how the prophet's life ended.  This  would  make  Zechariah  one  of  the last  righteous  people  the  Jews  killed  in Old Testament history. Some students of Scripture believe that the Zechariah to whom Jesus referred was the son of  Jehoiada  whom  the  Jews  stoned  in  the  temple  courtyard  (2  Chron.  24:20-22). However, that man died hundreds of years earlier, before 800 B.C., and Jesus seems to have  been  summarizing  all  the  righteous  people  the  Jews  had  slain  throughout  Old Testament history chronologically. Zechariah ben Jehoiada was the last martyr in the last book of the Hebrew Bible, Chronicles, so Jesus may have been speaking canonically, the equivalent of "all the martyrs from Genesis to Revelation." Nevertheless that Zechariah was the son of Jehoiada, not Berechiah, and Jesus mentioned Berechiah as the father of the  Zechariah  He  meant.  "Son"  sometimes  means  "ancestor,"  but  there  is  no  known Berechiah in the family line of the Zechariah of 2 Chronicles. "According  to  some  ancient  versions  Zechariah  was  a  poet  as  well  as  a prophet. His name is in the titles of Pss 137, 145—50 in the LXX; in the titles of Ps 111, 145 in the Vulgate; and in the titles of Pss 125, 145—48 in the Syriac.

11.2 Date

Zechariah's  inspired  preaching  began  in  the  eighth  month  of  520  B.C.  (1:1).  His  eight night visions followed three months later in 520 B.C. (1:7), when he was a young man (2:4).  He  delivered  the  messages  in  chapters  7—8  in  518  B.C.  (7:1).  Nehemiah mentioned  Zechariah  as  the  head  of  a  priestly  family  when  Joiakim,  who  succeeded Joshua, was high priest (Neh. 12:12, 16). This may have been as late as during the reign of Artaxerxes I (465-424 B.C.). Some scholars believe Nehemiah wrote chapters 9—14 during this later period of his life. The exact length of his life and ministry is guesswork, however.

11.3 Historical Background

Zechariah began ministering among the Jews who had returned from captivity in Babylon (i.e., the restoration community) two months after Haggai began preaching (1:1; 7:1; cf. Neh. 12:10-16; Hag. 1:1). In a sense, Zechariah's message supplements that of Haggai. "Both  prophets  .  .  .  contrast  the  past  with  the  present  and  future,  with Haggai stressing the rebuilt Temple as a sign and source of God's blessing and  Zechariah  emphasizing  the  role  of  repentance  and  renewal  in achieving   that  end.   The   two   prophets   worked   hand   in   glove, complementing each other's message. There  is  a  marked  contrast  between  Haggai  and  his  contemporary  Zechariah. If Haggai was the builder, responsible for the solid structure of the  new  Temple,  Zechariah  was  more  like  the  artist,  adding  colourful  windows with their symbolism, gaiety and light. To make sure that their symbolism  is  rightly  understood  an  interpreting  angel  acts  as  guide, adding  in  some  cases  a  message  that  goes  far  beyond  what  could  be deduced from the visions. Haggai and Zechariah's ministries followed those of Ezekiel and Daniel, who ministered during the Captivity in Babylon.

11.4 Purpose and Themes

Zechariah  ministered  to  the  restoration  community  to  motivate  those  Jews  to  finish rebuilding the temple and to rededicate themselves to Yahweh with the prospect of His blessing.  The  central  theme  of  the  book  is  encouragement  and  hope.  The  key  to  this hope is the coming of Messiah and his overthrow of ungodly forces and establishment of His kingdom on earth. The  prophet  is  concerned  to  comfort  his  discouraged  and  pessimistic compatriots,  who  are  in  the  process  of  rebuilding  their  Temple  and restructuring their community but who view their efforts as making little difference in the present and offering no hope for the future. This  prophet  dealt  with  the  future  of  Israel,  and  particularly  its  distant,  eschatological future, to an extent that surpassed the other Old Testament prophets (cf. 12:1-3, 9; 14:1-5, 16-21). His revelations concerning a future day of the Lord are numerous. What former prophets revealed at length, Zechariah epitomizes for us in terse sentences or even clauses.

This  book  also  contains  many  messianic  prophecies  (cf.  3:8-9;  6:12-13;  9:9-10,  14; 11:12-13; 13:7; 14:4, 9, 16).  Particularly   prominent  in  the  book  is  the  Messianic  element.  With  the exception of Isaiah, there is no other prophet whose book contains such a wealth  and  variety  of  this  element,  not  only  in  proportion  to  the  total amount of material offered, but also as a sum total of passages. Few  books  of  the  OT  are  as  difficult  of  interpretation  as  the  Book  of Zechariah; no other book is as Messianic.

11.5 Canonicity And Unity

This  book  is  the  second  to  the  last  of  the  Minor  Prophets  in  the  second  (Prophets) division  of  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Neither  Jews  nor  Christians  seriously  challenged  its canonicity. One reason for this is the fact that the New Testament quotes and alludes to Zechariah so often, about 41 times. 15  The Gospel evangelists cited chapters 9—14 more frequently in their passion narratives than any other portion of the Old Testament. The Book  of  Revelation  refers  to  the  Book  of  Zechariah  more  frequently  than  to  any  other Old Testament book except Ezekiel. There are also few textual problems in the book; the text has come down to us well preserved.  Until  A.D.  1653,  no  one  seriously  questioned  that  Zechariah  wrote  the  whole  book.  In that  year,  Joseph  Mede  suggested  that  Jeremiah  may  have  written  chapters  9—11,  in view  of  Matthew  27:9.  In  succeeding  years,  other  scholars  proceeded  to  question  the second part of the book (chs. 9—14), because of its differences in content and historical and chronological references as compared to the first part (chs. 1—8). Today almost all critical scholars regard this book as the product of two or three writers who wrote either before the exile or after Zechariah. Bruce Waltke, though conservative in most matters, dealt  with  this  book  by  referring  to  first  Zechariah"  and  "Second  Zechariah. Similarly, critical scholars regard Isaiah as having two or three writers. Critics commonly divide  Zechariah  into  chapters  1—8  and  9—14;  or  1—8,  9—11,  and  12—14.  The  presence  of  predictive  prophecy  in  the  last  chapters  of  the  book  has  encouraged  those who deny the miraculous to relegate this part to a later time and writer(s). "We maintain it is impossible to confine or restrict the Spirit of God in His revelatory purposes. If He cares to predict an event three centuries off, He is sovereign; and if it pleases Him to foretell the plan of God a millennium before  its  materialization,  He  is  just  as  sovereign.  We  emphasize  this because  we  believe  it  to  be  the  sine  qua  non  of  reverent,  acceptable interpretation of Biblical prophecy. Competent  conservative  scholars  have  refuted  the  arguments  of  the  radical  critics adequately. In  the  nature  of  the  case  it  is  not  possible  to  prove  conclusively  who wrote chapters 9—14, but when every argument has been considered the fact remains that all fourteen chapters have been handed down to us as one book in every manuscript so far discovered. Even the tiny fragment of the Greek manuscript found at Qumran, which includes the end of chapter 8 and  the  beginning  of  chapter  9,  shows  no  gap  or  spacing  whatsoever  to suggest a break between the two parts.

11.6 Genre

Zechariah  consists  of  a  combination  of  poetry  (chs.  9—10),  exhortations  (sermon  material; 1:1-6), prophetic-apocalyptic visions (1:7—6:8), symbolic actions (6:9-15), and oracles (chs. 7—14), some of which concern eschatological salvation (chs. 9—14). Some of the oracles introduce or follow visions, and others do not. Along with Ezekiel, Daniel, and Revelation, Zechariah is one of the most apocalyptic books in the Bible. In  the  present  writer's  judgment,  his  [Zechariah's]  book  is  the  most Messianic,  the  most  truly  apocalyptic  and  eschatological,  of  all  the writings of the OT. Apocalyptic  literatur is  basically  meant  to  encourage  the  people  of God.Only  apocalyptic  could  express  the  utter  transcendence  involved  in  the radical   transformations   that   would   accompany   the   irruption   of   the kingdom  of  YHWH  and  the  consequent  shattering  of  all  human  and  earthly systems in its wake. The apocalyptic visions of Zechariah, though filled with symbolism, are not as complicated and bizarre as those of Ezekiel, but do require angelic interpreters,  at  least  in  chapters  1-6.  He  goes  beyond  Ezekiel  and  other early apocalyptists, however, in his declarations that what he envisions isas  good  as  done,  for  it  is  only  an  earthly  reflection  of  what  has  in  fact come to pass in heaven.

11.7 Structure

"The 'shape' of a poem, the artistic arrangement of a book are instruments used by the Holy Spirit to convey His message.In  the  case  of  Zechariah,  there  are  three  large  chiastic  sections  (1:7—6:15;  7:1—8:19; and  chs.  9—14).  These  contain  Zechariah's eight  night  visions  and  their  accompanying oracles, his messages prompted by a question about fasting, and the two burdens (oracles) announcing  the  triumphant  interventions  of  the  Lord  into  history  in  the  future.  A  brief section introduces the whole book (1:1-6). Zechariah is the longest of the Minor Prophets. It contains 14 chapters with 211 verses, whereas Hosea, the second longest, has 14 chapters with 197 verses. Daniel, the shortest MajorProphet, contains 12 chapters with 357 verses.

11.8 Message

This is the second post-exilic prophetical book. The historical background and audience are the same as those for Haggai. As Zechariah's contemporaries looked back, they saw former  glory  and  recent  shame.  As  they  looked  forward,  they  saw  difficulty  and  felt discouragement.  Zechariah  ministered  to  inspire  hope  in  the  heart  of  this  discouraged remnant of Israelites. That was his purpose. Zechariah  delivered  his  first  message  between  Haggai's  first  and  second  messages,  and his  purpose  was  the  same  as  Haggai's:  to  motivate  the  restoration  community  to  finish rebuilding the temple. Zechariah followed this first message with eight visions to inspire hope in his hearers. Why should they rebuild the temple if there was no future? Zechariah then  explained  that  the  present  sorrowful  fasts  that  the  people  were  celebrating  would  give way to future glorious feasts. The final two oracles also provided hope for the future by  predicting  the  coming  of  Messiah  and  His  glorious  kingdom.   Note  the  8—4—2  structure of this book. This structure makes it easier to remember what is in it. Many writers on Zechariah have called this book the apocalypse (Gr. for "revelation") of the  Old  Testament,  because  it  unveils  so  much of  Israel's  future,  particularly  Messiah's  place  in  her  future.  The  whole  book  is  a  revelation  of  the  pervasive  power  and  the persistent purpose of Yahweh. Zechariah revealed things about the future of the Jews that  gave his discouraged contemporaries hope.  People experiencing adversity frequently see only things that are close at hand. Zechariah  provided hope from visions that he saw, and from voices that he heard, that encouraged his audience to lift their eyes to behold the larger plans and purposes of their God.  Permanent  values  of  this  book  are,  therefore,  that  it  reveals  the  proper  attitude  and  activity  of  God's  people  in  all  circumstances,  as  well  as  the  pervasive  power  and  the persistent purpose of Yahweh. To generalize, Haggai is more practical, and Zechariah is  more theoretical. The first three verses of the book stress the first of these values. The great appeal of the entire book appears in verse 3: "Return to Me that I may return to you, says the LORD of  Hosts." Everything that follows illustrates and applies this promise. As often is the case, the key to understanding a book of the Bible lies in the aspect of God that  God  stressed  in  revealing  Himself  to  His  people  through  its  writer.  The  title  "the LORD  of  Hosts"  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  Bible  in  1  Samuel,  when  the  people  of  Israel  were  concerned  about  armies,  particularly  the  Philistine  armies.  This  title  rarely appears  in  the  other  historical  books,  but  it  is  very  common  in  the  prophetical  books.  Zechariah used it more frequently than any other prophet: at least 35 times. The word "hosts" in the Bible describes stars, angels, the people of Israel, and the armies of other nations. The title "the LORD of Hosts," then, describes Yahweh as 

the sovereign  Lord and Master of the entire universe. As the prophets used it, they stressed Yahweh's sovereignty  in  action,  not  just  in  its  abstract  meaning.  That  is,  they  saw  Yahweh  as leading all armies—of stars, angels, and people. Zechariah lived when Israel had lost its army, had no military power, and had little political organization. Thus, by referring to Yahweh  as  "the  LORD  of  Hosts,"  Zechariah  was  reminding  his  hearers  of  their  God's abiding and active sovereignty. The  prophet  referred  to  Yahweh  as  "the  LORD  of  Hosts"  three  times  in  the  opening  paragraph of his book (vv. 1-3). The first reference (in v. 3) reminded the Israelites that their  sovereign  God  had  made  His  will  known  to  His  people;  He  had  spoken  (cf.  1:6). The Lord illustrated this truth in verse 4. The sovereign Lord had said, "Return to Me" (v. 3).  This  was  the  first  part  of  Zechariah's  prophetic  burden.  The  second  part  was  that Yahweh promised to return to His people (v. 3). He explained the work that He, as the Sovereign, would do to make this return possible. God Himself would provide the power necessary  for  the  restoration  of  order,  by coming  to  His  people  in  His  Son  and  by  His Spirit. Thus, Zechariah had a three-fold conviction. God reveals His will, He calls people back to  Himself  and  provides  the  way  for  their  coming,  and  He  promises  that  if  they  will return to Him, He will return to them. God revealed His will to the returnees through the prophetic word. He promised to provide a way for people to return to Him through the "Branch,"  the  second  person  of  the  Trinity  (3:8).  The  revelation  of  this  divine-human  person occupies much of this book in proportion to its length. Second, God promised to return to people who return to Him through His Spirit, the third person of the Trinity. He would return "not by might nor by power, but by My Spirit," says the Lord (4:6). The  visions  and  oracles  in  Zechariah  illustrate  Yahweh's  pervasive  power.  They  draw attention to this.  In  the  first  vision,  God  revealed  the  presence  of  His  angel  that  was  watching  over  His people in their depressed place. They knew about the depressed place, but the presence of  the  angel  was  news  to  them.  The  second  vision  revealed  that  forces  would  destroy  the powers that opposed them. The people knew about these enemy powers, but they needed  a reminder that God planned to destroy them. In the third vision, God revealed Jerusalem in  its  future  large,  secure  condition.  The  people  knew  about  Jerusalem;  they  were rebuilding  it.  But  they  were  not  sure  about  its  future  large  and  secure  condition.  The fourth  vision  revealed  an  adversary  and  an  advocate.  The  people  were  aware  of  their adversary, but they were unaware of their divine advocate. In the fifth vision, God revealed the people's responsibility to be lights in the world and their resource for doing so. The people knew their responsibility, but they did not fully appreciate  that  they  had  a  supernatural  resource  that  would  enable  them  to  fulfill  their  responsibility.  The  sixth  vision  revealed  the  purging  of  sin  with  divine  revelation.  The people  were  aware  of  the  present  sin,  but  they  now  learned  that  observing  God's  law would deal with it. The seventh vision illustrated ongoing evil and its final purging away. The people were aware of widespread evil, but they needed reminding that God would eventually remove it forever. The eighth vision revealed the need for divine control over present chaos and the provision of divine control. The people were very conscious of the need  for  divine  control  in  their  chaotic  world,  but  they  needed  to  remember  that  God would indeed exercise divine control in the world. Each vision revealed an aspect of God's pervasive power to overcome what Zechariah's audience  faced,  and  so  gave  them  hope.  Were  they  in  a  depressed  place?  God  was watching over them. Were weapons being formed against them? He would break those weapons. Was the city they were rebuilding insecure? He would enlarge it even further and  make  it  secure.  Was  their  adversary  going  to  be  successful?  God  would  be  their Advocate. Was their responsibility heavy? He would prove to be a sufficient resource for them. Was sin present everywhere? He would give the power to overcome sin. Was evil  ever going to end? He would end it. Would order ever come? He would bring it. The two oracles in Zechariah 9—14 teach the same basic lesson: the pervasive power of "the  LORD  of  Hosts."  To  summarize  this  briefly,  the  anointed  King  would  be  rejected initially, but He would return with the pervasive power of Yahweh. The  visions  and  oracles  also  illustrate  the  second  major  revelation  of  Zechariah:  the persistent purpose of Israel's God. The visions unfold God's dealings with Israel eschatologically, as well as contemporarily. While  all  the  conditions  of  Israel  described  in  the  visions  marked  the  restoration community, they will also mark the future of Israel. She was and would continue to be depressed among the nations. Enemies would attack her, but God would eventually defeat them. Jerusalem would be rebuilt and protected, and Israel would be cleansed to serve the Lord. Israel would fulfill her destiny as a light to the nations, and she would disseminate the knowledge of God in the world. Evil will be greatly constrained, and all of Israel's enemies  will  suffer  defeat.  All  these  predictions  reveal  the  persistent  purpose  of  God whereby  He  moves  history  toward  His  intended  goal,  despite  human  and  Satanic opposition.  The  oracles  illustrate  the  same  principle.  Messiah's  rejection  would  lead  to  His coronation. Some of Yahweh's purposes in salvation took place when Messiah came the first  time,  but  the  rest  of  His  purposes  in  salvation  will  take  place  when  He  comes  the second time. What should be the attitude of God's people in view of these revelations? They should return to the Lord (1:3). They should believe these revelations, obey them, and work in view of them. The people of God in Zechariah's day needed to complete the temple and reestablish right relations with Yahweh, even though they lived in a day of darkness and discouragement. They  needed  to  abandon  the  fasts,  that  they  had  established  to  commemorate  the destruction of Jerusalem, and prepare for feasts that would celebrate the glorious future that Yahweh promised and would provide. Whereas  Haggai  called  these  people  to  be  strong  and  to  work,  Zechariah  revealed  the secret of their strength. The Apostle Paul put it this way: "For momentary light affliction is  producing  for  us  an  eternal  weight  of  glory  far  beyond  all  comprehension"  (2  Cor. 4:17). That is the message of Zechariah in New Testament language. The proof of vision is strength. What do we see as we look out over the church? We may see  only  the  discouraging  things  that  the  restoration  Jews  saw  as  they  viewed  their situation. We need to be aware of the unseen things that God has said He is doing, and will do, in order to persevere in the work of building His church, that He has called us to do (cf. Matt. 16:18; 2 Cor. 2:14—5:21) The secret of strength is vision. If God's people say they see these positive, encouraging things and that they believe them but do nothing, it is hard to believe them. The person who  is  conscious,  through  all  the  appalling  defeat  of  the  hour,  of  the  immediate, pervasive  presence  and  power  of  God,  is  the  person  who  grabs  ahold  of  the  piece  of  desolation nearest to him or her, and works on it until it blossoms like a garden. The true demonstration  of  vision  is  taking  ahold  of  the  present  situation  and  doing  something about it, trusting in the unseen presence and promises of God. In our day, visionaries are a dime a dozen. It is the visionaries who follow through that are rare and successful. The writer of the Epistle to the Hebrews challenged his readers with words that are very appropriate in light of the message of Zechariah (Heb. 12:12-13). Some Christians seem to equate spirituality with pessimism. They consider others "visionary" who explore and deplore in great depth the difficulties of our days. We need to be realistic about our times, but we must also keep our eyes on the person of God and our ears open to His promises. We must also fall in line with His purposes and work in harmony with His principles of  power. When we do this, we can rest assured that when the Rejected One is crowned, we will share in His triumph as we have shared in His travail.

PROPHET MALACHI-XII

12.1 Title And Writer

The title, as usual in the prophetical books of the  Old  Testament,  comes  from  the  name  of thetraditional writer. The  name  "Micah"  is  a  shortened  form  of  "Micaiah,"   which   means:   "Who   is   like Yahweh?"  This  was  an  appropriate  name since  Micah  helped  the  people  understand what Yahweh  is  like.  There  are  many  other Bible characters with the same name. Another Micaiah, the son of Imlah, served as a prophet in the Northern Kingdom during the reign of King  Ahab  of  Israel  (874-853  B.C.,  1  Kings 22:8-28;     2     Chron.     18:3-27).     Micah's hometown  was  Moresheth-gath,  which  stood  about  25  miles  southwest  of  Jerusalem  in Judah (1:1), between Azekah and Marisa. It was called Moresheth-gath (1:14) because it was fairly close to the Philistine town of Gath. Moresheth-gath was also about six miles northeast of Lachish, an important Judean town in Micah's day, because it stood on an international  trade  route.  Since  Moresheth-gath  stood  only  about  a  day's  walk  west  of Tekoa,  Amos'  hometown,  these  prophets,  who  were  roughly  contemporary,  may  have known  each  other. 1   However,  Amos'  ministry  may  have  been  over  by  the  time  Micah began his.Amos prophesied during the reign of King Uzziah of Judah (Amos 1:1), and Micah prophesied during the reigns of Kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah of Judah, who followed   Uzziah   (Mic.   1:1).   This   probably   means   that   Micah   was   a   younger contemporary of Hosea, Amos, and Isaiah.

12.2 Unity

Critics of the book have tried to prove that it is the product of several writers or editors (redactors).  The  reason  for  this  view  is  its  lack  of  apparent  coherence.  Chapters  4—7 have become the target of most critical attacks, yet the book is harmonious in its basic structure.

12.3 Date And Place Of Composition

Micah  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  the  Judean  kings  Jotham  (750-732  B.C.),  Ahaz (732-715 B.C.), and Hezekiah (715-686 B.C.; 1:1). This made him a late eighth-century B.C. contemporary of Isaiah, who also ministered in the Southern Kingdom of Judah (cf. Isa. 1:1), and Amos and Hosea, who ministered in the Northern Kingdom of Israel (cf. Amos 1:1; Hos. 1:1). These were years of economic affluence and international peace but spiritual decadence for both kingdoms, especially Israel. Micah witnessed the fall of the Northern Kingdom to Assyria in 722 B.C. He also lived through the invasion of Judah by the Assyrians under King Sennacherib in 701 B.C. Leon Wood  believed  that  Micah  wrote  between  735  and  710  B.C.,  because  he  did  not  cite Sennacherib's invasion of Judah. 3  However, Leslie Allen argued convincingly that 2:12-13   alludes   to   Sennacherib's   blockade   of   Jerusalem   in   701   B.C. 4    According   to Sennacherib's own records he captured 46 of King Hezekiah's strong cities, walled forts, and  countless  small  villages.  He  claimed  to  have  taken  captive  over  200,000  Judahites plus innumerable animals. Two of the Judean cities taken were Lachish, second only to Jerusalem in importance, and Moresheth-gath, Micah's hometown. Micah referred to the distress that this foreign invasion produced in Judah (1:10-16; 5:6).

12.4  Audience And Purpose

Micah  ministered  to  the  people  of  Judah,  the  Southern  Kingdom.  He  predicted  the destruction of the Northern Kingdom of Israel by the Assyrians, and warned the Judeans that God would discipline them, too, for their sins. As in all the prophetical books, the standard by which God measured His people was the Mosaic Covenant. If they obeyed, they would enjoy blessing, but if they disobeyed, they could expect punishment (cf. Lev. 26; Deut. 28). Micah, too, pointed out how the Israelites had broken the covenant and that judgment  was  inevitable,  but  he  also  promised  ultimate  restoration  in  view  of  God's  promises to the patriarchs. Micah never used the word "covenant" (Heb. berit), but it is clear from what he wrote that thoughts of the covenant were always in his mind. Isaiah  ministered  in  Jerusalem  and  had  easy  access  to  the  court  of  the  kings.  He ministered  to  the  kings  and  princes  as  well  as  the  ordinary  citizens.  Micah  ministered mainly outside Jerusalem among the ordinary Judahites. Micah was primarily a prophet of  the  poorer,  ordinary  Israelites  and  a  friend  of  the  oppressed.  Micah's  ministry  was more rural, like Amos', and Isaiah's was more cosmopolitan. Micah was concerned with personal and social righteousness (contemporary issues), also like Amos, and Isaiah was concerned with more and larger issues covering the whole scope of history from his own day to the end times. Micah's theme is true religion (cf. Amos; James 1:27). True religion is not conformity to external rituals but the practice of righteousness in personal and social life. His thesis is that God will discipline His own with judgment for their sins, but He will also fulfill His covenant promises in the future.

12.5 Structure And Emphases

The  Book  of  Micah  consists  of  three  messages,  each  of  which  begins  "Hear"  (Heb. shema;  cf.  Deut.  6:4).  They  may  have  been  messages  that  he  preached,  or  probably condensations  of  several  addresses  he  delivered  during  his  ministry. In  each  one  the theme of judgment is prominent, but there is also mention of restoration and a remnant (2:12;  4:7;  5:7-8;  7:18).  Eventually  God  would  restore  the  Israelites  to  a  position  of world prominence under their Messiah. Much debate surrounds the structure of the book of Micah. Opinions vary radically. Some argue that the book has no overall structure but is simply a loose  collection  of  prophetic  oracles.  Others  identify  extremely  complex and  sophisticated  structures.  A  few  points  are  certain:  1.  Micah  did  not  speak these oracles at one time. The book is best taken as an anthology of  his prophetic messages over the years of his ministry. 2. Chronology is not the key to the structure of the book, though early in the book Micah does predict  the  capture  of  Samaria  and  Sennacherib's  invasion,  while  at  the conclusion of this book, he looks forward to the Babylonian captivity and the  restoration.  3. The  prophecy  is  roughly  structured  on  the  basis  of alternating messages of threat and hope.

12.6 Distinctive Characteristics

The main aspects of God that Micah emphasized were His sovereignty, self-consistency, and His leadership of all events and His people toward the fulfillment of all His ultimate plans and purposes for them. Proportionately,  this  book  has  more  prophecies  about  the  advent  and  kingdom  of Messiah,and Israel's future, than any other prophetic book. The future role of the Davidic dynasty, and its capital city, Jerusalem, receive greater attention in this prophecy than in the other eighth-century B.C. Minor Prophets (Jonah, Hosea, and Amos). Like his contemporary Isaiah, Micah stressed God's incomparability. He had Amos' passion for justice and Hosea's heart of love. Like  all  the  other  eighth-century  B.C.  prophets,  Micah  also  attacked  the  idolatry  that  accompanied the acceptance of Canaanite worship. However, his distinctive burden was the social injustice that marked the ruling class (2:1, 8-9; 3:11; 6:11; cf. Amos). He was a champion  of  civil  rights.  He  has  often  been called,  "the  prophet  of  the  poor,"  or,  more accurately, the prophet of the oppressed middle class. Micah wrote about the coming Messiah. He predicted His birthplace, lineage, and origin  (5:2), His future reign (4:1-7; 5:4), and he referred to Him as Israel's king (2:13) and ruler (5:2).  Micah's  doctrine  of  the  remnant  is  unique  among  the  Prophets  and  is perhaps  his  most  significant  contribution  to  the  prophetic  theology  of  hope. The remnant is a force in the world, not simply a residue of people, as the word 'remnant' (she'erit) may seem to imply. It is a force that will ultimately conquer the world (4:11-13). This triumph, while presented in apparently militaristic terminology (4:13; 5:5-6), is actually accomplished by  other  than  physical  force  [cf.  Matt.  5:3-12].  By  removing  everything that  robs  his  people  of  complete  trust  in  him  (5:10-15),  the  Ruler  from Bethlehem will effect the deliverance of his people. The source of power for  God's  people  in  the  world  is  their  absolute  trust  in  him  and  his resources. Like many of the prophetical books, Micah contains much poetry. One of the prominent features of Hebrew poetry is parallelism of thought, and this marks Micah. Micah used his native language as a craftsman. He utilized puns, wordplays, and probing questions. This  book,  like  most  of  the  other  Prophets,  is  a  collection  of  messages  that  Micah delivered. There is one citation from Micah in the Old Testament and two in the New. The elders of Jerusalem  in  Jeremiah's  day  referred  to  Micah  to  support  not  persecuting  Jeremiah  for predicting  judgment  on  Jerusalem  (Jer.  26:17-19).  Matthew  quoted  Micah  5:2  as predicting  the  birthplace  of  Messiah  (Matt.  2:5-6),  and  he  recorded  Jesus'  quotation  of Micah 7:6 regarding conflict within families (Matt. 10:35-36). Micah drew on many other books  of  the  Old  Testament:  Exodus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  2  Samuel,  1 Kings, Psalms, Proverbs, Amos, and Isaiah.. In OT study Micah has tended to be overshadowed by Amos and Hosea and especially by his great contemporary Isaiah, whose prophetic material has been preserved in much greater quantity. Stylistically, to be sure, he sometimes  has  more  of  the  qualities  of  an  orator  than  of  a  poet.  But  his message  is  proclaimed  with  no  uncertain  sound,  as  with  passionate forthrightness he attacks the social evils of his day. His stubborn refusal to float  on  the  tide  of  his  social  environment,  and  his  courageous  stand  for his convictions of God's truth, must commend Micah to believers in every age. The  church  today  needs  men  like  Micah  who  can  see  the  connection between  the  Western  world's  spurning  of  its  Christian  heritage  and  the international crises that surround it.

12.7 Message

Micah directed all the nations to witness God's judgment of His Chosen People in these litigation speeches (rib [lit. lawsuit] oracles). He wanted the people of the earth to learn that  Yahweh  is  sovereign  by  observing  His  dealings  with  Judah.  If  Israel  had  been faithful to God's purpose for her, all the nations would have learned how wonderful it can be  to  live  under  the  government  of  Yahweh.  But  Israel  had  failed  in  her  calling. Therefore, Micah pointed out—for the benefit of all people—that those who serve under God's government can expect judgment when they fail in their calling. As a police officer who breaks the law gets more severe treatment in court than the ordinary citizen, because of his calling, so the people of Judah got more severe treatment from the Lord, because of  their calling. Micah was very much aware of the throne in heaven, God's throne, that symbolized His eternal sovereignty over all people, including His chosen people. He was also aware of  the failure of the throne on earth, the failure of King Ahaz of Judah. Micah  was  a  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  and  both  of  these  prophets  ministered  in  the Southern  Kingdom  during  Ahaz's  reign.  But  Micah's  emphasis  was  different  from  Isaiah's. Isaiah focused on the throne in heaven. He saw the Lord high and lifted up above the  earth,  ruling  in  sovereign  majesty  and  providing  salvation  for  all  people.  Micah focused on the human rulers under the divine sovereign. He spoke of  "the powers that be" that  are  ordained  of  God  (Rom.  13:1).  His eyes  were  on  the  earth.  He  saw  the  sin  and corruption,  the  sighing  and  crying  of  the  people,  their  agony  and  tears,  and  he  traced  these tragedies to misrule by people in authority in Judah. The  unique  contribution  of  Micah  is  twofold:  First,  this  prophet  unmasked  and  denounced the false rulers. Second, he unveiled and proclaimed the true Ruler. The false rulers  were  the  princes,  priests,  and  prophets  that  surrounded  him.  The  true  Ruler  was someone whom Micah saw coming in the future to rule and reign properly. We  see  Micah's  picture  of  false  authority  clearly  in  3:11:  "Israel's  leaders  pronounce judgment for a bribe, her priests instruct for a price, and her prophets divine for money." Micah  identified  all  three  major  types  of  Judahite  rulers  as  corrupt:  civil  leaders  (the princes), religious leaders (the priests), and moral leaders (the prophets). The judges were judging according to who paid them best. The priests were teaching the people, but for what they could get out of it. The prophets were not really prophesying messages from the Lord but were divining messages from other sources. They were practicing sorcery and witchcraft for money and passing these revelations off as the word of the Lord. In every case, ministry was being conducted, but for selfish motives, for what the ministers could get out of ministering. The judges (princes) were passing judgment in legal cases because they hated good and loved evil (3:1-3). They should have "known" judgment (3:1). That is, they should have practiced  justice,  ruled  justly,  and  shown  no  partiality.  Instead  they  were,  as  Micah described them, tearing the skin off the people, eating their flesh, and chopping up their bones like butchers (3:2b-3). They were robbing the people, like soldiers who took the 8  Dr. Constable's  spoils of war. They were not impartial. They did not represent God, the true Judge of His people. They were corrupt. The priests were no better (3:11). When we think of Israel's priests, we probably think of  them offering the sacrifices that the people brought to the temple. But one of the primary responsibilities of the priests in Israel was to teach the people the Word of God (Deut. 17:8-13). This was really a more important ministry than cutting up animals. This man-ward  duty  was  more  significant  than  their  God-ward  duty.  God  scattered  the  priests  in Israel, rather than giving them one geographic region to inhabit, so they could teach the people  God's  will.  Yet  the  priests  in  Micah's  day  were  just  telling  the  people  what  the Judahites  wanted  to  hear,  not  what  God  had  said.  And  they  were  doing  it  for  money. They distorted their messages to get a favorable response to their messages. The prophets claimed to have received fresh messages from the Lord for the people, but most of the prophets in Micah's day delivered favorable "words from the Lord" only if  they  received  adequate  compensation.  If  the  people  did  not  pay  them  well,  they  either gave a message of gloom and doom, or no message at all. They were getting messages for the people all right, but they were messages from the wrong source. Their "prophecies"  amounted  to  sorcery  and  witchcraft.  Micah  wrote  of  them  in  3:5:  "When  they  have something to bite with their teeth, they cry, 'Peace.' But against him who puts nothing in their  mouths,  they  declare  holy  war."  The  people  had  to  pay  for  good  prophecies. Otherwise they would get prophecies of disaster. Many Christian ministers make ministry decisions primarily on the basis of money. I am  not just referring to people who go into the ministry because they think it is a comfortable way to earn a living. I am also referring to evangelicals who are in the ministry because they love the Lord and want to serve Him. It is a temptation to evaluate opportunities for various ministries on the basis of financial remuneration. As you consider opportunities for  ministry,  let  me  encourage  you  not  to  make  your  pay  a  significant  factor  in  your  decision. If you go where the Lord wants you, He will take care of you. Try to discover where you can make the greatest contribution and go there, not where you can receive the best salary. It is also a temptation to expect, or even require, payment for some forms of  ministry.  When  we  view  ministry  that  way,  we  are  really  viewing  it  as  a  job,  not  as  sacrificial service. We have become hirelings, not ministers in the true sense of that word. Wherever you find distressed and suffering people, the cause is usually their leaders. If  the  leaders  are  out  of  harmony  with  God,  if  they  love  evil  and  hate  good,  if  they  are selfish  rather  than  servants,  the  people  suffer.  This  is  true  no  matter  what  form  of  government exists. Every form of government has the equivalent of princes, priests, and prophets: civil, religious, and moral leaders. Corrupt authorities rule for their own benefit, not for the benefit of the people. This is the opposite of "servant leadership.  Micah saw through the smog of his own day to a Ruler on the distant horizon beyond. He saw this One coming out of human obscurity, not out of a position of power. He would arise from the obscure town of Bethlehem in Judah, but His real origin was eternity (5:2).  He  would  arise  and  shepherd  His  flock  in  the  strength  of  the  Lord  (5:4).  He  would faithfully  represent  Yahweh  and  act  in  His  strength.  He  would  not  serve  Himself  but 2014  Yahweh. He would not be a crooked judge but impartial. He would not pervert the truth to glorify Himself but would tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. He would not pass deceitful and destructive messages to the people, but only the true words of the Lord. The result of His ministry would be peace, not distress and suffering (5:5a). The negative side  of  His  rule  would  be  the  destruction  of  all  the  things  the  people's  false  rulers  had encouraged  them  to  trust  in:  horses,  chariots,  cities,  strongholds,  treaties,  witchcraft,  images,  and  idols.  The  strength  of  a  nation  is  never  in  these  things,  but  in  its  leaders. Israel  would  one  day  have  a  Leader  who  would  provide  adequate  strength  for  her.  He would not abuse her but glorify her. The timeless value of Micah is that it reminds us that the test of authority is its motive. If the motive of leaders is self-aggrandizement, self-service, and self-glory, their leadership is corrupt and pernicious. The strength of leaders is in their recognition of Yahweh. We  see  this  clearly  in  that  One  whom  Micah  saw  arising  out  of  obscure  human  conditions, yet with the authority of eternity behind Him, to take the reigns of power and produce peace. When He came the first time, the obscurity of His human background so blinded  the  eyes  of  His  contemporaries  that  they  rejected  Him  and  said:  "We  will  not have this Man reign over us!" But when He comes the second time, no one will be able to resist His eternal authority, and He will reign over the whole world. He will provide the perfect civil, religious, and moral leadership that this world has longed for but has never yet enjoyed. In the meantime, our duty is to obey Him because our eyes of faith have seen Him, and  our  hearts  know  Him.  As  His  disciples,  we  must  serve  as  He  will  serve,  in  whatever sphere of leadership or position of authority we may occupy. And we must eagerly await His return in power and great glory. Titus 2:13 says that we should be "looking for the blessed hope, even the appearing of the glory of our great God and Savior, Christ Jesus." Micah is a great book because it contrasts imperfect leaders with the Perfect Leader. It uncovers present corruption, but it also gives us hope of future celebration. It assures us that God will replace selfish leadership with selfless leadership. It provides negative and positive leadership models for church leaders and individual Christians today. I believe that the aspect of God that Micah helps us appreciate most is His leadership.